exam 2 Flashcards
what is health care policy?
all actions that governments take to influence the provision of health care services and the various government activities that affect or attempt to affect public health and well-being
reasons that keep people from accessing the medical care system (3)
- economic reasons (unable to afford)
- bureaucratic skills (the ability to negotiate or get through the bureaucracy)
- geography
geographic considerations to accessing the healthcare system
urban areas are generally better served by doctors and hospitals than rural areas (south tends to rate the worst; mid-atlantic and far west are the best areas)
key features of the Affordable Care Act (7)
- mandates that uninsured individuals purchase a minimal level of health insurance through the state
- subsidizes the costs of health insurance for low to moderate income families
- offers tax credits for small businesses to provide health insurance for employees
- removes annual and lifetime limits/caps on health insurance coverage
- requires insurers to cover family members up to 26
- expands Medicaid and CHIP
- mandates free preventive services for those on Medicare
how the US system is a hybrid of private and public care
Medicare and Medicaid are the public health care options that are available to those who qualify. Most health care services are provided by doctors who work in clinics and hospitals that are privately run. The result is a health care system that is something of a hybrid; it is neither completely private nor fully public
problems of being uninsured (3)
- a higher lifelong risk of serious medical problems and premature death
- receive too little medical care, receive it too late, and to be sick
- receive less adequate care when they are in a hospital; more likely to go without cancer screening tests
difference between Medicaid and Medicare
Medicare serves all citizens once they reach age 65, regardless of income and is therefore a form of national health insurance for senior citizens, but Medicaid is a specialized health care program for the poor and disabled
ways of reducing health care costs (5)
- managed care organizations
- passing on additional costs to health care consumers
- setting up personal health accounts
- managing disease more effectively
- using preventive health care
problems with all-volunteer military (4)
- recruitment - the military is competing and the risks of joining may deter people from enlisting
- compensation - typically, military pay isn’t as high as the private sector
- retention - difficult positions that require a lot of training
- philosophical issues - with an all-volunteer force, it typically derives from low-income areas
what is foreign policy?
the collection of government actions that affect or attempt to affect US national security as well as the economic and political goals associated with it
what is defense policy?
the goals set (usually by civilian policymakers in the White House and Congress) and the actions taken by government officials directed at the conduct of military affairs
5 essential activities of US foreign policy since WWII
- collective security - promoting collective security through alliances like NATO and regional partnerships
- economic engagement - promoting global trade and economic cooperation; includes negotiating trade agreements, providing foreign aid, and supporting international financial institutions (World Bank and International Monetary Fund)
- humanitarian intervention - providing assistance during times of crisis and working to alleviate suffering in areas affected by conflicts, natural disasters, or humanitarian emergencies
- democracy promotion - promote democratic values and institutions around the world; includes supporting democratic transitions, advocating for human rights, and providing assistance for governance and civil society development
- counterterrorism and nonproliferation - focused on countering terrorism and preventing the spread of weapons of mass destruction; includes military interventions, intelligence sharing, and diplomatic efforts to combat terrorism and prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons
problems with the DHS
the department is an awkward collection of offices and programs, and many of its component agencies appear to have lost the professional capabilities they once had:
1. the ineffective response of FEMA (Hurricane Katrina)
3 broad categories of US social policy
- social insurance programs (social security)
- social assistance programs - you have to qualify for; show that you need assistance (food stamps)
- personal social services - improve the quality of life for an individual (foster care, counseling programs)
alternatives to the US welfare system (4)
- family allowances - all families receive a check from the government depending on how many children there are
- negative income tax - what a minimum income should be based on family size, and if you make below that, you will receive subsidies
- faith-based initiatives - push welfare responsibilities on religious groups
- full employment - just guarantee everybody jobs
how American individualism impacts the US welfare policy
the American cultural and social perspective that encourages individualism and promotes equality of opportunity leads to a tendency to blame the poor for their own circumstances
different ways to examine poverty (4)
- official definition - a family of 4 making less than $25,100 annually
- income distribution perspective - the more unequal the distribution of income, the greater the potential poverty problem
- demographic characteristics (race, gender, and age)
- ideological perspective
liberal and conservative approaches to the causes of poverty
- conservatives see poverty in part as a personal choice; they believe that little poverty exists in the US that is involuntary; conservatives tend to blame government programs for encouraging people to remain poor, in part by not requiring any kind of responsibility in exchange for received benefits
- liberals see poverty as a problem brought on by economic and social conditions over which individuals have little or no control; liberals recognize that not everyone has the same opportunity for quality education or job training, and they favor government intervention to help equalize the playing field
what is social security?
the single largest federal government program today, providing money for retired workers, their beneficiaries, and workers with disabilities
problems with social security (4)
- the fixed retirement age (increasing the age would help with funding the program, but also introduces equity issues)
- potential gender inequity built into the system
- the financing of the program and the projections showing the system running out of money
- beneficiaries who chose to work to supplement their income would lose part of their SS benefits if they made more than a certain amount of money during the year
different solutions to financing social security (3)
- increase revenues flowing into the program (increase the individual income tax)
- cut expenditures (increase the age of eligibility, delay the COLA)
- privatization of social security - individuals would be allowed to invest some of their withholding tax in mutual funds of their choosing, or the government might be permitted to invest SS funds in the stock market or other private instruments to generate a higher rate of return
difference between means-tested and non-means tested programs
means-tested programs differ from social insurance programs such as SS: eligibility for these programs is based on need rather than contributions made to the program
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
provides low-income households with financial resources to purchase food; eligible recipients are allotted a dollar amount based on the size of their household
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)
a refundable federal income tax for low-income working individuals and families; for those who qualify, if the EITC is greater than the amount owed in taxes, the beneficiary receives a tax refund
3 major goals associated with welfare reform
- enforce work requirements
- reduce dependency
- promote marriage
a fourth goal, to reduce poverty, would follow from the previous conditions
types of school choice programs (9)
- limited education choice (magnet schools, alternative learning centers, open enrollment, charter schools)
- full education choice (vouchers, private scholarship programs, tax credits)
importance of peer-review and replication in policy studies (4)
- what’s the motivation?
- what’s working? (why and how?)
- what’s the method?
- what’s the prescription?
index crimes
any reported incident; not very valid, just numbers, doesn’t show severity
non-index crimes
actual arrests; issue timely warnings, devise an emergency response policy
barriers to reporting campus crime (4)
- campus culture
- lack of understanding about how to report crimes
- fear of retaliation by the perpetrator or their peers
- fears about telling parents about being victims
reasons for lower teacher quality (4)
- lack of funding (teacher salaries, funds per student)
- misuse of funds
- teacher standards (too low? too high?)
- certification is arguably too easy
merit pay
pay raises based on performance and teaching quality
Competency Testing of Teachers
Clinton used this and it turned out many teachers could not pass these tests, so he made the exams easier to ensure passing grades
argument for affirmative action in higher education
equality is important and creates a more diverse student body
arguments against affirmative action in higher education (2)
- effectiveness/qualification of diverse student bodies (SAT scores)
- not equitable, resulting in less diverse student body
promoting economic growth
increasing the overall production and expansion of the economy; it involves policies that encourage investment, innovation, productivity, and entrepreneurship to stimulate economic activity
maintaining price stability
aims to keep inflation in check and ensure that prices remain relatively stable over time; policies such as monetary and fiscal measures are implements to manage inflationary pressures and maintain a stable price level
reducing unemployment
this goal focuses on creating job opportunities and reducing unemployment rates; policies may include promoting job creation through economic stimulus, investment in infrastructure, and targeted employment programs
achieving income distribution
addresses the fair distribution of income and reduces income inequality; policies may involve progressive taxation, social welfare programs, and initiatives to improve access to education and job opportunities for disadvantages groups
ensuring financial stability
aims to maintain the stability of the financial system, prevent financial crises, and safeguard the overall economic health; policies may include regulations on banks and financial institutions, monitoring systemic risks, and implementing measures to prevent excessive speculation or risky behavior
fiscal policy
the use of government spending and taxation to influence the economy; it involves decisions made by the government regarding how much money it spends on public goods and services, as well as how it raises revenue through taxes
monetary policy
involves managing the money supply and interest rates to influence economic activity; controlled by the central bank of a country
ways the federal government controls the money supply (3)
- open market operations
- reserve requirements
- discount rate
how corporate welfare influences economic policy (4)
- tax breaks and incentives
- subsidies and grants
- regulatory capture
- trade policies
the goal of tax policy
to generate revenue for the government to fund public goods and services, such as infrastructure, education, healthcare, and defense
regressive taxes
taxes that take a larger proportion of income from lower-income individuals compared to higher-income individuals (sales tax)
progressive taxes
take a larger proportion of income from higher-income individuals compared to lower-income individuals; as income increases, the tax burden increases as well
Peters 5 major characteristics of taxation and application to a particular tax
- collectibility (how easy is it to collect the tax?)
- fiscal neutrality (does the system give preference to one kind of revenue?)
- buoyancy (is the tax able to keep up with economic growth and inflation?)
- distributive effects (what is the impact of the tax on different groups in the population?)
- visibility (how visible is the tax? how acceptable is the tax?)
major steps in the formal federal budget process (7)
- executive budget formulation
- congressional budget resolution
- appropriation process
- authorization process
- budget execution
- auditing and oversight
- budget amendments and revisions
why is budgeting incremental?
because it builds upon previous budgets and makes adjustments based on existing spending levels and priorities; allows for stability and continuity in government spending, as well as smoother transition from one budget cycle to the next
national debt
the total amount of money that a country owes to its creditors
deficit
when the government spends more money than it collects in revenue during a specific period (fiscal year)
surplus
when the government collects more revenue than it spends
ways to decrease the federal budget deficits (5)
- increasing revenue
- cutting spending
- economic growth
- controlling healthcare costs
- addressing entitlement programs
Women’s Armed Services Integration Act (1948)
allowing women to serve but wanting to limit them from combat roles, placing them in more of a support role (nurse, cook)
Department of Defense Directive Risk Rule (1988)
used as a standard to try and evaluate combat positions from non-combat positions; any risk to direct combat, fire, and/or capture is prohibited from women
DoD Directive Rescinding Risk Rule (1994)
women can participate in any position except for those that involve direct combat on ground; passed because of Desert Storm
DoD Directive Full Integration (2013)
women were fully integrated into the military with no restrictions
Articles 93 of the Articles of War 1916
makes sodomy illegal
Excludable Characteristic 1942
homosexuality is an excludable characteristic; homosexuality is a personality trait
DoD Classifications 1950
class 1 - aggressive homosexual - court marshal
class 2 - non-aggressive homosexual - discharge
class 3 - shown no homosexual tendencies
DoD Directive 1981
homosexuality is incompatible with military service; many men and women are discharged because of this directive
DoD Directive “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”
people wouldn’t be asked about their sexual orientation or discharged for being gay, but if any homosexual activity occurs, then they would be discharged
Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act (2010)
overturned the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” Act; occurred under the Obama administration
Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act (Clery Act 1990) (3)
- provide a public annual security report
- provide a public crime log
- disclose crime statistics
2 problems of relying on property taxes for school funding
- inequality in funding - communities with higher property values can generate more revenue for their schools; leads to significant disparities in educational resources
- lack of stability - property tax revenues can fluctuate over time due to changes in property values and economic conditions; can create instability in school funding
security vulnerabilities not being seriously addressed (3)
- cybersecurity threats
- infrastructure vulnerabilities
- potential gaps in intelligence sharing and coordination among different agencies
criticisms of transportation security (2)
- the inconvenience caused by security measures at airports (long lines, extensive screening procedures)
- the effectiveness of certain security measures
arguments concerning effectiveness about protecting our national security
some argue that certain security measures, such as surveillance programs or intelligence gathering, are necessary to prevent potential threats and ensure national security; they believe that these measures have proven effective in identifying and preventing terrorist activities
arguments concerning legal/ethical concerns about protecting our national security
critics raise concerns about potential violations of privacy rights and civil liberties; they argue that some security measures may infringe upon individual freedoms and privacy, leading to issues of surveillance overreach or potential abuses of power
evaluation of welfare reform (5)
- impact on poverty (are welfare reform measures reducing poverty rates?)
- workforce participation (are policies encouraging individuals to enter/reenter the workforce?)
- program effectiveness (are programs providing adequate support?)
- social and economic mobility (are individuals/families able to move up on the economic ladder?)
- cost-benefit analysis (do the benefits of reform measures outweighing the cost associated with implementing/maintaining the programs?)
history of school choice in the US (2)
- “white flight” academies (deemed unconstitutional; separate but equal)
- 1970s - experimental schools (vouchers)
student achievement
there is no choice program that consistently shows positive nor negative impacts on student achievement; methodology used is seen as suspect
parental satisfaction
clear evidence shows that choice parents are more satisfied than traditional public school parents
stratification by race, class, or religion (4)
- the private education market is dominated by religious affiliated institutions and prep schools that cater to wealthy parents
- arguments that choice will increase diversity/integration
- in programs that are more controlled, we do see more promotion of racial integration
- as choice schools become less regulated, we do see that stratification becomes more apparent
what is Homeland Security Policy?
involves measures taken to protect a nation’s territory, citizens, and critical infrastructure from threats such as terrorism, natural disasters, and cyber-attacks; encompasses various agencies and initiatives aimed at preventing, preparing for, and responding to potential threats within a country’s borders
