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Structural Geology > EXAM 2 > Flashcards

EXAM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

thrust faults place…

A

older rocks on top of younger

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2
Q

thrust systems propagate towards…

A

foreland

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3
Q

how are new thrust faults created

A

when stress required to move fault > stress required to break rock a thrust falut is created

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4
Q

the geometry of fold and thrust systems depends on…

A
  • friction coefficient on fault surfaces
  • failure strength of the rocks
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5
Q

thrust fault example: foreland rocks become harder to break

A

reactivation of older fault was easier than fracturing more competent lithology in foreland

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6
Q

where is friction on faults higher in thrust faults

A

new faults form closer to the ramp of existing faults

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7
Q

thrust fault example: high friction faults and strong material in foreland

A

it may be more energetically favorable to produce a “back thrust”

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8
Q

thrust fault example: low friction faults and strong material in foreland

A

reactivation of multiple older faults because faulting is easier than breaking

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9
Q

thrust fault example: very weak layer between hard basement and soft overlying sediment

A

low friction surface makes it easiest to continue faulting at contact before breaking overlying layers

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10
Q

types of thrust systems

A
  • fault bend fold
  • in-sequence thrust system
  • out-sequence thrust system
  • duplex
  • fault-propagation fold
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11
Q

fault bend fold

A

thrust cuts up section at footwall ramp

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12
Q

in-sequence thrust system

A

older to younger

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13
Q

out-sequence thrust system

A

younger to older

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14
Q

types of extensional fault systems

A
  • rift
  • basin and range
  • normal fault systems
  • large displacement normal faults
  • domino fault model
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15
Q

draw a rift system

A

yay

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16
Q

what are grabens

A

the downthrown blocks in extensional systems (hanging wall)

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17
Q

what are horts

A

the upthrown blocks (footwall)

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18
Q

draw a basin and range system

A

yay

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19
Q

what are ranges

A

ranges are the exhumed footwall blocks

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20
Q

what is exhumation

A

the transport of a rock to the surface

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21
Q

what is need denudation

A

the mechanical and chemical of erosion, weathering, and mass wasting “removal of material”

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22
Q

what is tectonic denudation

A

removal of material by faulting

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23
Q

results of exhumation

A
  • normal faulting exposes rock
  • weathering breaks down the rock
  • erosion or mass wasting transports the sediment to the basins
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24
Q

normal fault system

A

parallel closely spaced faults

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25
Q

large displacement/magnitude extension

A
  • during continued extension, it becomes more efficient to slip on a lower angle fault; some stretching is accommodated by rotation
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26
Q

domino fault model

A
  • faults shallow as fault blocks rotate
  • faults become too shallow and new higher angle faults will develop
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27
Q

space problem

A

rigid block rotation along planar faults creates gaps in the crust, which is impossible

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28
Q

how to solve space problem

A
  • roll over
  • antithetic faults
  • synthetic faults
29
Q

types of folds

A
  • chevron fold
  • concentric fold
  • box fold
30
Q

fold opening

A

gentle: 180-90 degrees
open: 120-70 degrees
tight: 70-30 degrees
isoclinal: 30-0 degree

31
Q

dip of axial surface

A
  • upright
  • plunging upright
  • horizontal inclined
  • recumbent
  • vertical
  • plunging inclined
  • reclined
32
Q

tools to describe a fold

A
  • tightness
  • dip of axial plane
  • plunge of hinge line
33
Q

what is fabric built of

A

minerals and mineral aggregates with a preferred orientation that penetrate the rock at the microscopic to centimeter spacing scale

34
Q

foliation

A

planar structure formed by tectonic processes, and includes cleavage, schistosity, and mylonitic foliations

35
Q

cleavage

A

a low temperature version of foliation best developed in rocks with abundant platy minerals

36
Q

draw scale and type of foliation

A

yay

37
Q

cleavage formation

A
  • slaty cleavage
  • phyllitic cleavage
38
Q

what is slaty cleavage

A
  • pressure solution cleavage
39
Q

slaty cleavage with clay minerals

A
  • pressure at grain boundary causes dissolution of quartz in the presence of a fluid
  • clay minerals will dissolve and regrow with the long axis perpendicular to sigma 1
40
Q

phyllitic cleavage

A
  • slaty cleavage becomes more well defined as mica minerals continue to grow
  • rock begins to look shiny but individual mica grains cannot be seen with the eye or hand lense
41
Q

schistosity

A

as metamorphic grade increases, mica grain grow larger. The foliation becomes less planar as it wraps around stronger minerals. Layers of mica are continuous through the rock and individual grains are visible in hand sample (other metamorphic minerals start to grow)

42
Q

gneissic foliation

A

foliation defined by compositional banding caused by transposition of compositional domains or metamorphic processes

43
Q

transposition

A

flattening and rotation into parallelism

44
Q

metamorphic processes

A

melting causes segregation of melt (quartz and feldspar) from residuum (biotite, garnet, amphibole)

45
Q

lineation

A

a fabric element in which one dimension is considerably larger than the other two

46
Q

examples of lineation (elongation)

A

mineral aggregates or stretched pebbles

47
Q

example of lineation (lines of intersection)

A

line along which two planar elements intersect

48
Q

example of lineation (surface lineation)

A

slickenline, striation..

49
Q

stretching lineations

A

lineation formed by rotation, recrystallization or dissolution/precipitation of a mineral

50
Q

intersection lineations

A

a lineation commonly formed when two foliations cross-cut

51
Q

draw L-tectonite

A

yay

52
Q

draw S-tectonite

A

yay

53
Q

shear zone

A

commonly considered the ductile-component of fault zones that cut the crust

54
Q

ramsay-type shear zone

A
  • foliation initially develops perpendicular to sigma 1
  • as shear strain increases, foliation rotates to near-parallel with shear zone boundary
55
Q

how to find ramsay-type shear zone

A

can use angle between foliation and shear zone boundary to calculate shear strain

56
Q

draw ramsay-type shear zone diagram

A

yay

57
Q

kinematics

A

in a shear zone, deflection of foliation records the sense of shear (top-right or top-left)

58
Q

s-c fabrics

A
  • s (schistosity) = foliation
  • c (cisaillement) = shear band
59
Q

porphyro clast

A

relatively large grains that form before deformation but change simple or orientation during deformation

60
Q

types of kinematic indicators

A
  • sigma clast
  • delta clast
  • phi-clast
61
Q

diagram of each kinematic indicators

A

yay

62
Q

ductile deformation mechanisms

A

during foliation development, crystallization is the primary deformation mechanism

63
Q

recrystallization

A

is a process whereby strained grains are replaced by unstrained grains

64
Q

dislocation glide

A

-dislocations move along the lattice plane
- dislocation pile up when they cannot continue moving, creating a wall (undulose extinction)

65
Q

dislocation climb

A

-dislocation can climb from one lattice plane to another to avoid dislocation pile ups and continue moving (recovery mechanism)

66
Q

dislocation creep

A

when dislocation glide and climb happen together (most common mechanism)

67
Q

dynamic recrystallization with dislocation creep

A

during dislocation creep, dislocations move toward grain boundaries

68
Q

dynamic recrystallization with dislocation creep

A

at higher temperatures, dislocation climb (recovery) becomes more efficient, so subgrain formation is more rapid and the subgrains become new grains

69
Q

grain boundary migration

A

at higher temperatures, grain boundary migration becomes rapid and dislocations move to grain boundaries, which grow outwards

Structural Geology (3 decks)

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