Exam 2 Flashcards
The “Three Eras” of Magazine History
- The early industry - Elite Readership Era
- Mass-Circulation Era
- The Era of Specialization
The early industry - Elite Readership Era
By mid-1700s, magazines become a favorite medium
among the British elites.
Andres Bradford & Benjamin Franklin duplicated that
success in the New World.
Early magazines
Saturday Evening Post (1821), Harper’s (1850), Atlantic
Monthly (1857)
Mass-Circulation Era
(1870s)
McClure’s (-1929)
The Saturday Evening Post
Ladies’ Home Journal
Cosmopolitan
10–15 cents for working people.
Served for social change, esp. in the muckraking era of the first decades of the 20th century -Theodore Roosevelt
What was the first national mass medium? and what helped circulate…
Magazines
Railroad helped mass-circulation
magazines
Help developing national brands
Means to spread message nationwide = Magazines
What is the mass distribution of ideas
Magazine ads
(vs Mass Production & Distribution of Consumer Goods)
Mass consumer vs mass market
The top magazine ads
Toiletries & Cosmetics
Apparel & Accessories
Drugs & Remedies
Foods
Media
Retail
Direct Response
Companies
Where does the most magazine business revenue come from
ads
Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC, est. 1914) – Now
Alliance for Audited Media (AAM)
Providing reliability to announced circulation figures
Why are accurate figures important?
Pricing ad space based on circulation/# of people
Historically publishers often fabricated circ. #s to sell ad space at a higher price
What else matters?
Subscription vs. single-copy sales
Pass-along readership
Demography (e.g., socio economic status of readers)
3 types of magazines
- Trade, professional & business
for specific professions - Industrial, company & sponsored for within organizations
- Consumer
Controlled Circulation (Custom Publishing)
Providing a magazine at no cost to readers who meet some specific set of advertiser-attractive criteria.
ex. Hemispheres (United Airlines) for travelers
Free to take; airlines (and advertisers) expecting pass-along readership = bigger ad reach! (Day’s idea again!)
What’s wrong if this ad is in Hemisphere?
Expensive meat next to not expensive meat - makes it look bad
Advertise lots of destinations
Custom Magazines
Brand magazines:
consumer magazines by businesses & aimed at demographics that are similar to those of the businesses
Magalogue:
Designer catalogue looks like a consumer magazine
Advertorials
Ads that appear in the magazines, taking on the appearance of editorial content.
Complementary copy
Content that reinforces advertiser’s message, or at least does not negate it—is problematic if it becomes major influence in publication’s editorial decision making.
Ad-pull policy
Advertisers demanding right to prescreen content
Convergence with internet – Magazines as an online medium
80+% magazines produce online editions w/ interactive features.
Most online-only contents are free; contents appear in print are for fee.
Print ads are more effective than online ads.
Readers prefer print over online.
Online magazines’
competition with:
1) printed magazines
2) other online contents (NPs,
other websites).
QR codes (quick response)
embedded in print magazines
Where are people of color in magazine ads?
serving or entertaining, working
vs served and entertained, etc.
The Media Effects Debate
Argument 1:
Media content has limited impact on audiences because it’s only make-believe; people know it isn’t real.
Counterarguments:
News – Real
Ad - Supposed to tell truth
Kids confront the world through TV
= The early window (of social learning)
To enjoy the media, we willingly suspend disbelief.
The Media Effects Debate
Argument 2:
Media content has limited impact on us b/c it is only play or entertainment
Counterarguments:
News is not entertainment.
Even if media are for recreation, recreation is very
important to the way we develop our knowledge of
ourselves and our world.
The Media Effects Debate
Argument 5:
Media only affect unimportant things in our lives, such as fads & fashions
Counterarguments:
Fads & fashions are not unimportant
If media influence only unimportant things, why are billions of $ spent on media efforts to sway opinion about social issues?
The Media Effects Debate
Argument:
If media have any effects at all,
they are not the media’s fault.
Media simply hold a mirror to
society and reflect our world as
it is.
Counterargument:
Media = a very selective mirror,
and some things are
overrepresented, others
underrepresented, and some
things disappear altogether.
Agenda setting!
Administrative research
asks questions about the immediate, observable influence of mass comm
Transmission perspective
A liner sequential model of the
effect of communication
Ritual perspective
Representation of shared beliefs
Creation of culture
Shaping and reinforcing cultural
values
Mass comm theories
Explanations of social phenomena that attempt to relate mass comm to our personal & cultural lives
Not one single mass comm theory
Often borrowed from other fields of science (e.g., third-person effect & psychology)
(The Era of) Mass Society Theory
Media are corrupting influences undermining the social order
Hypodermic Needle (Magic Bullet) Theory
Media are a dangerous force that directly penetrates a person’s system (everyone’s)
War of the Worlds (1938)
Martians had begun an invasion of the Earth
Limited Effects Theories (The Era of the Scientific Perspective)
Media influence was limited by individual differences, social categories, & personal relationships
Lazarsfeld’s Two-step Flow Theory
Media message
↓↓
Opinion Leaders
↓↓
Opinion Followers
=
“Social context of interpretation”
Attitude Change Theory
Dissonance Theory — (when confronted by conflicting information, people experience mental discomfort), and they consciously and subconsciously work to reduce that discomfort
through 3 selective processes.
Selective Exposure
(or selective attention)— people
expose themselves to only those messages consistent with their preexisting attitudes & beliefs
Selective Retention
people remember best those
messages that are consistent with their preexisting attitudes & beliefs
Selective Perception
people interpret messages in a
manner consistent with their preexisting attitudes & beliefs
Uses and Gratifications Approach
claims that media do not do things to people; rather people do things with media
consider what gratification you are obtaining by using the media
or a specific medium/media content
Social Cognitive Theory
People copy behaviors they see, imitate it and identify with it. Observers do not always have to copy what they see but sometimes make a related response
(Observational Learning
Inhibitory Effect
Disinhibitory Effect)
Disinhibitory Effect
You may be rewarded by doing
something bad! (or at least not punished)
Glamorization of Alcohol
ex., the more you drink, the
more “real man” you are!”
Media being a very selective mirror…
some things are
overrepresented, others underrepresented, and some
things disappear altogether
Alcohol & Drugs x Media
Evidence links media portrayals of alcohol consumption to youthful drinking and alcohol abuse
But, good # of research from alcohol-industry discounts causal link b/w media portrayals &
drinking
Dependency Theory
People become dependent on media to understand what is going on around them, to learn how to behave meaningfully, and for escape.
“The media are a terrorist’s best friend . . .”
The stimulation model
Direct causal relationship b/w violent content & aggressive behavior
Aggressive cues model
media portrayals suggest that certain classes of people are acceptable targets for real-world
aggression
Cultivation Theory
Heavy exposure to media, namely TV, creates & cultivates
attitudes more consistent with a media conjured version of
reality than that of actual reality.
“The more TV you watch, the more you believe the reality
is similar to what on TV.”
Mainstreaming of Reality
Moving individuals toward shared, television-created
understanding of how things are.
Mean World Syndrome
We live in a world in which we are less trusting of our
neighbors & more accepting of violence in our midst, due
to media.
(This is politically exploitable)
(“The medium is the message”)
Concentration - Economies of Scale
Relative cost of an operation’s output declines as the
size of the endeavor grows.
This particularly works well with media industry.
Non- rivalrous Public Goods
One media product can be shared by many people.
Goods that can be inexpensively copied and distributed, allowing many consumers to enjoy product at the same time. Duplication does not cost much.
Stereotyping
Application of standardized images to members of certain groups, usually based on limited
information
Ex. Mickey Rooney, Irish-American acting Japanese
Actors/actresses must be highly skilled to portray stereotyped characters
RADIO (& Music Rec)
Why revolutionary?
- Wireless - Can reach MASS audience simultaneously without physical connection
- Technology really matters!
- Content vs. distribution separated
The only way you could listen to Music in 1850 was?
Live! But not anymore…
1877: Edison’s “talking machine”
a hand-cranked grooved cylinder and a needle duplicating sounds
1887: Berliner’s Gramophone
a flat, rotating, wax-coated disc, could be copied from a metal master
Wireless Ship Act of 1910
All ships using US ports & 50+
passengers must have a working
wireless & operator.
(before broadcasting)
After Titanic, Radio Act of 1912
Wireless operators must be licensed by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor.
(before broadcasting)
Is Air Traffic Control mass communication?
No!!!
No anonymous audience
Immediate feedback
uses the same radio waves with FM
Radio Act of 1927
Authorized broadcasters to use airwaves and channels.
(broadcasting)
Trustee Model
Regulation based on the philosophy of spectrum scarcity & issue of influence
(broadcasting)
Communication Act of 1934
Created Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
(broadcasting)
Generally, there is more governmental regulation on the broadcasting than the print media, why?
Airwaves belong to the public (= public asset); Neither broadcasters nor the government own them.
History of radio in the US
Broadcasters = private, commercially owned enterprises
(Ad-based)
Content = Entertainment & information
Governmental regulation based on public interest
Stronger public presence in Western Europe (e.g., BBC)
The Golden Age (history of radio)
of homes w/ radios:
1930: 12 million → 1940: 30 million
Ad revenue = $40 million → $155 million
WWII = Unstable world = more prompt news needed
When TV arrived…
Radio network affiliation dropped
to 50% & stations “went local.”
Radio survived by changing its
nature.
Why did radio survive?
Local
Fragmented & Specialized
Personal
Mobile
Inexpensive (not in Baran)
the “least distracting” medium
(not in Baran)
Disaster & Radio (e.g., 2011 Tsunami in Japan)
People re-appreciated radio b/c:
Battery operated (or even hand crank)
Mobile
Not physical distribution (= airwaves)
Wide transmission
Free (often from commercials)
Region-specific content
Radio in 1945…
FCC set aside all FM freq. b/w
88.1-91.9 MHz. for noncommercial radio (or NCE – Non Commercial Educational)
Deregulation (radio)
1996 Telecommunications Act
No national ownership limits
One company can own as many as 8 stations in single market.
Digital technology…
In the 70s, the basis of recording & radio industries changed from analog to digital recording
1981
Sound and visual convergence
MP3’s (allowed…)
Compression software that shrinks audio files to less than a 10th of original size
MP3s contribute to piracy
Easy to duplicate
No sound-quality reduction
↓
CD
↓
Digital download
↓
Streaming reduced piracy, illegal sales of copyrighted/high quality music.
“Streaming Saved the Music Industry, But What Did It do
to the Music?”
The Internet =
A new channel for music distribution
P2P— Person-to-Person software
Direct Internet-based communication or collaboration
b/w two or more personal computers that bypasses centralized servers (e.g., BitTorrent)
Podcast
(coined from iPod and broadcast) Unlike traditional broadcasting, voice data store in servers for much more flexible casting, often by individuals
Bitcasters
Web-only radio even if live casting
Early-1800s: First photography =
Daguerreotype
(Louis Daguerre)
Where was the first human ever photographed
Boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1838
Taken in spring 1838 by Daguerre. Though it shows Paris’ busy Boulevard du Temple, the long exposure time (about ten or twelve minutes) meant that moving traffic cannot be seen; however, the two men at lower left (one apparently having his boots polished by the other) remained still long enough to be distinctly visible.
Persistence of vision
Images are retained in the brain for about 1/24th of a second.
i.e., Photos moving at 24 frames/sec - We perceive them as being in motion.
Kinetoscope
Sort of peep-show device
Edison’s Vitascope
1896: US movie business born when Edison’s Vitascope premiered in NYC
The Big Studios
1908: Edison founded Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC, also called The Trust)
Many independent film companies sprang up in defiance of The Trust.
Moved to CA to avoid MPPC scrutiny & reprisal
The Coming of Narrative
1902: A Trip to the Moon, a narrative motion picture that told a story.
1903: The Great Train Robbery used montage
Montage
Tying together two separate but related shots/cuts in such a way that they take on a new, unified meaning
Bokeh
the quality of out-of-focus or “blurry” parts of the image rendered by a camera lens – it is NOT the blur itself or the amount of blur in the foreground or the background of a subject. The blur that you are so used to seeing in photography that separates a subject from the background is the result of shallow “depth of field” and is generally simply called “background blur.”
Film Technologies
Close-up
Telephoto
Depth of Field (Blur)
Slow motion
Fast motion
Moving/rail camera
Aerial shot
Superimpose
Backlight (e.g., scene into the Sun)
Music
& many more!
Film History
Film industry survived the Depression because of its size &
power.
1948: Supreme Court ruled Vertical Integration & Block
Booking illegal.
Fighting Back - To recapture audiences from TV
More special effects
Greater dependence on, and improvements in, color
CinemaScope
Three-Component Systems
- production
- distribution
- exhibition
Production
Average cost of producing & marketing a Hollywood feature is over $100 million.
Distribution
supplying movies to theaters, TV, cable/satellites, and DVDs
Exhibition
Over 41,000 movie screens in the US. Concession sales account for 40% of a theater’s profits. Three largest theatre chains sell about 80% of all tickets.
Concentration & the Blockbuster Mentality
All studios (except MGM) are a major part of media giants
(e.g., Time Warner)
Blockbuster mentality: Reduced risk taking & more formulaic movies
How many movies are adaptations of TV shows, comic books, videogames, etc…
Merchandise Tie-Ins accounted for $2 billion dollars in
payments every year. Disney collected $57.4 billion in
licensing fee.
Product placements ($20 billion a year) allows many movies
to serve as “effective” ads – “commercial that lives forever”
Overseas box office accounts for 70% of the US film industry’s income.
Hollywood may be the US’s largest export! but…
tends to rely on simple story lines, actions, etc.)
and
Hollywood will also hire different actors to fill similar if not the exact same role as previous titles
Sequels, remakes, and franchises…
Franchise films are produced with full intention of producing several sequels
Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) and his sense extension theory argue that
the media & technology extend/expand our senses, capability & alter our social world
What is the derivation of Television?
Tele
Vision
Tele = Distance
Vision = To see
In 1884 Nipkow developed the first device generating electrical signals transmitting a scene
By 1959 there were 559 stations & 90% of US households had TVs.
Quiz Show Scandal
changed networks from single
advertiser-sponsored programs to spot sales made to sponsors
McCarthyism &“Red Scare”
made advertisers afraid to buy time from broadcasters who employed “Red sympathizers” like Orson Welles
The Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
united the educational channels into The Public Broadcasting
Services (PBS)
Ratings
% of market’s total population that is reached by a piece of broadcasting program
Measures “actual reach” of a program
The Nielsen Ratings (41,000 households/100,000)
Diary
People meter
Global Television Audience Metering
Share
% of people using TV turned into a given piece of program
Measures competitiveness of a program
Total Audience Measurement Index (TAMi)
measure of viewing of a single TV episode across all platforms (TV, DVD, Internet, & mobile video)
Sweeps periods
(4 times a year) Feb., May, July, &
Nov. Special TV ratings times in which diaries are distributed a large number of sample households in selected markets
C3 & C7 rating
measure of viewing of commercials that appear in a specific program within 3 or 7 days of its premiere telecast (live cast + DVR, Internet, & mobile video), Internet, and mobile video
TV as an Ad Medium
Affiliates sell viewers to advertisers
ABC, NBC, and CBS each has over 200 affiliates.
Local affiliates clear time in exchange for a fee paid by the local station for the right to be that network’s affiliate (reverse
compensation)
For a long time, the network TV =
ABC, CBS, NBC & Fox
HBO
Early 1970s, Home Box Office began distributing movies by satellite as “premium cable.”
Premium cable offering high quality content & began to erode networks’ profits.
The Cable TV Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992
required operators to offer basic cable (& expanded basic cable, incl. local stations)
Multiple System Operators (MSO’s)
own several cable franchises, such as Time Warner, Comcast, etc.
Video on the Internet
YouTube attracts 1 billion hours daily, 500 hours of new contents uploaded to the site every minute
Most content originated on network and cable TV; but much is also Web-only video (e.g., Netflix, Hulu, Amazon, & YouTube)
Cable’s digital channels permit multiplexing… =
carrying 2 or more signals over the same channel, so (interactive cable)
Interactive cable
Video-on-demand (VOD)
one-click shopping
local information on demand
program interactivity
phone-over-cable
Many more new technologies too
“Spectrum scarcity” becomes less of an issue.
Mid-1880s: Charles Babbage produced designs for a
computer
Colossus
the first digital computer, reduced information to binary code (0 & 1) (1940s)
IBM
Commercial computer explosion
The Personal Computer - Apple
1977: the Apple II was released—a low-cost, easy-to-use microcomputer for personal use & known for multimedia
The Personal Computer - IBM
IBM contracted with Microsoft to use the Microsoft operating system in its IBM PC
International Business Machine Corporation
Internet = “network of networks”
LANS (local area networks) = Connecting multiple computers, usually in same building
WANS (wide area networks) = Connect several LANs in different locations
The World Wide Web (WWW) uses…
hypertext transfer protocols (HTTP) to transport files from one place to another
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) — What (contents)
HTTP – How (Common communication rules, methods)
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) – Allowing voice communication over the Internet (e.g., Skype).
What is social media’s/internet’s audience called?
Users
(The Internet makes us all journalists, broadcasters,
commentators, critics, filmmakers, and advice columnists)
(In 2000, women became the Internet’s majority gender for the first time)
SNS
Sites that function as online communities
The dual-factor model
engaging w/ social media is motivated by the need to belong and the need for self presentation
The idealized virtual identity hypothesis
Social media users tend to show idealized characteristics of themselves.
The extended real-life hypothesis
We use social media to communicate our actual identities
Facebook depression
The more you use social media, the more you have a depression?
Affective forecasting error
The discrepancy b/w expected and actual emotions generated by Facebook activities
Facebook envy
Resentfulness of other’s social media expressions and happiness
Copyright exemptions are provided for
nonprofit libraries, archives, and educational institutions under certain circumstances
States explicitly that fair use policies…
apply to the internet
(Limits the copyright infringement liability of an ISP for simply transmitting information over the Internet
Requires webcasters to pay licensing fees to record companies)
Attracted ads
Newspaper became a lucrative business.
The more people read the paper, the more profit the publisher makes (from ads) even though
people do not “buy” paper by themselves. – Pass-along readership is good now!
(Benjamin Day: established basic
business model: Penny Press)
For America’s media industry/business
The media (e.g., NP) sell space/time to advertisers.
Where does media revenue come from vs internet?
Media = majority ads
Internet = 100% ads
Commodity audience (as opposed to consumers)
Audiences are being sold as a commodity to advertisers by the media, especially by social media. In the Internet, your characters, thoughts, consumption behavior—essentially identity and psychology—become a commodity to be purchased by advertisers/commercial business.
New technology advances pose privacy problems…
Radio frequency identification (RFID) chip
Augmented reality (AR) Information/website superimposed in your phone
Internet of Things (IoT)
Click stream – (tracking) Series of your choices
Cookies
Network neutrality
Treat all contents equally by all ISPs.
Technology gap
Communication Tech haves vs. have-nots
- Digital divide
- Information/knowledge gap
- Municipal broadband: High speed/low-cost network publically provided
Digital divide
1 out of 5 people has internet access in poor countries
The Declaration of Internet Freedom:
No censorship of the Internet
Universal access to fast, affordable networks without metering
Freedom to connect, communicate, create, and
innovate over the Internet
Protection for new technologies and innovators
Privacy rights
Ad & PRs
“strategic communication”
Clear intention – To influence audience!
What makes ad unique from other media contents?
Goal oriented (to sell products!)
Invested
Concise
Using many (encoded) codes
Freedom & creativity
Creating & reinforcing socio-cultural values
Can be deceptive
Industrial Revolution and Civil War brought about…
expansion of ad, which helped
emergence of (mass production &) national brands
Magazine Ad
By the turn of the century, magazines financially supported primarily by advertisers rather than by readers.
The Ad Agency & Professionalism
Between Civil War & WWI, ad became more creative & expensive, and was conducted on a larger scale.
1869: F. Wayland Ayer began N. W. Ayer, a “full-service” advertising agency.
TV Ads
Early TV shows
Single sponsored.
But, the quiz show scandal in 1959.
1965: Every TV ad was 60 seconds.
Parity products
Most brands in a given product category are essentially the same
What is the USP for M&M’s?
(Unique Selling Proposition)
“Melts in your mouth, not in your hand”
1914: Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
1971: The National Advertising Review Board (NARB)
An ad is false if it:
lies outright
does not tell the whole truth
lies by implication, words, design, etc.
(The Warner-Lambert Listerine Case (1978))
The FTC can issue a
cease-and-desist order & order corrective ad
Certain exaggeration is permissible. But to what extent?
Paradox of Puffery
“While puffery receives First
Amendment protection, verifiable product information may be more restricted.”
In other words, the more concrete info you provide, the
less likely your ad is permissible.
Cons of Ads
Intrusive
Deceptive
Demeans & corrupts culture.
AIDA approach— Attention, create Interest, stimulate
Desire, & promote Action.
Consumer culture— personal worth & identity reside not in ourselves, but in the products with which we
Helps to gather info.
Supports our economy
Increases national productivity & improves the standard of living.
Ad revenues make the “free” mass media possible.
This avoids government intervention– Fee speech possible
Demographic segmentation
appealing to audiences defined by demography (e.g., gender, race)
Psychographic segmentation
appealing to consumer groups with similar lifestyles, attitudes, values, & behaviors
VALS, VALS II (Values, Attitudes &
LifeStyles)
