Exam 2 Flashcards
Digital Native
someone who has grown up with technology
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (3)
- we learn by observing
- reinforced by rewards/consequences
- behavior becomes more self-regulated as you go
Reciprocal Determinism
Part of Bandura’s social learning theory
3 factors that influence behavior
1. environment
2. individual
3. the behavior
Reproducing observed behavior depends on…
…if someone has the capabilities and motivation
worked example effect
novices learn more studying worked examples than problem solving
worked examples (5)
- help you develop a problem schema
- create a foundation that other problems can be applied to
- not effective for experts
- rely on intrinsic motivation to study
- keep your mind on the relevant information and steps that lead to the solution
intrinsic load
complexity of the new information
germane load
cognitive processes (load) that are effective for learning
extraneous load
distracts working memory from processing novel information
Instructional design should maximize (a) and minimize (b).
a. germane load
b. extraneous load
self-efficacy
your perception of your ability to achieve or do well at something
split attention
when different information is being presented at one time
ex. a meme on the screen while the professor is explaining a concept
redundancy effect
it isn’t useful to present the same information in multiple ways
ex. reading off of a slide
Is using models that deliberately make mistakes good or bad?
Good
- for experts looking at negative examples gives opportunity for additional learning and important
- for novices it makes them feel more comfortable to try and okay with making mistakes while learning
What makes a good model?
- someone that is relevant to the task and the observer
- someone that is competent and has prestige (you can tell they know what they’re doing)
- peers can be good models but some content requires an expert model
Do models need to be human?
no
What is the problems with learning from a screen recording?
How can these be avoided?
- the speed can be too fast
- you need to watch and process at the same time
- these can be avoided if there is an ability to pause the video or if there are breaks/knowledge checks throughout
cognitive apprenticeship
a model of cognitive processes in addition to a worked example (or steps to solve the problem)
- the student slowly begins to take over
How is explaining a concept to peers helpful?
- it encourages active information processing
- it encourages full and complete explanations (as they are aware of an audience being able to understand)
perceived confidence
more closely related to a specific instance; the ability to achieve a specific solution in a specific circumstance
What is the difference between “self-efficacy” and “perceived confidence”?
- SE refers to your overall perception of your ability to excel in a domain or to achieve/perform a skill
- PC tends to refer to a specific instance
How is “efficiency” defined in terms of cognitive load theory?
efficiency refers to being able to integrate the most knowledge (effectively - it can be easily accessed and transferred) in the least amount of time
Creating a video explanation is _______ effective than studying worked examples.
Especially for novices/experts.
more
novices
Teaching on video aids…
in the construction of problem solving skills learned from worked examples
far transfer
to solve a problem in an unknown category by applying skills previously learned for solving other problems
Learning to solve problems requires what 2 forms of knowledge?
procedural knowledge
conceptual knowledge
procedural knowledge
what to perform and how
conceptual knowledge
why to perform actions
example-based learning
students receive examples where the full solution procedure is demonstrated
- a form of observational learning
abstract modelling
acquiring cognitive skills based on the example/modelling/verbalization by a model of underlying (abstract) rules or principles
vicarious learning
observing someone else being taught
Why are strategies such as trial-and-error or means-end analysis not useful for novices?
They require too much use of the working memory to reach the solution so the correct steps cannot be effectively conceptualized and processed.
What are the 4 phases in analogical reasoning?
- encoding of examples
- activating relevant analogs from memory to solve a new problem (transfer)
- mapping the new problem onto the analog
- modifying the schema to fit the problem
How does studying example-problem pairs aid in a learner’s metacognition?
it gives them insight into their current level of understanding
fading strategy
students are presented with a fully worked out example and with each subsequent example are required to complete an additional step on their own
Explain knowledge of a domain and knowledge of teleology in regards to a procedure.
- knowledge of a domain refers to principled knowledge; events & objects
- knowledge of its teleology refers to the rationale behind the procedure
product-oriented examples
show a given state; the solution procedure; and the goal state
*does not include the rationale behind the procedure
How is comparing worked examples helpful?
It gives the student a better understanding of what is the underlying problem schema and solution procedure and what is just interchangeable features relevant to the specific problem
Random sequencing _______ cognitive load and _______ performance during practice. It usually leads to _______ learning and transfer.
increases
decreases
better
What is required for studying wrong examples to be effective?
feedback on not only what is wrong but why
the double curse of incompetence
novices don’t know how a task should be performed or what constitutes a good performance
Explain joint attention in a video example
using the models gaze cues to direct the observer’s attention to the necessary information
Coping peer models are ______ effective than mastery peer models for low-ability students.
more
modality effect
Learning is more effective when there is visual (graph) and auditory (lecturer) information simultaneously
clinical case paradigm
an example clinical case where all information is given and the student needs to make a diagnosis
signs vs. symptoms
signs - recognizable to both the patient and the clinician
symptoms - more subjective, observed by the clinician as a sign of something
Using a clinical case paradigm become ______ effective as medical students progress. Why?
less
as they learn they encapsulate information into schemas and illness scripts which leads to a different process when solving problems that is less conducive to the use of CCPs
Pathophysiological explanations by medical experts contain ______ biomedical concepts and ________ encapsulating concepts than those of 4th year med students.
less
more
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
- deductive reasoning
- form a hypothesis from initial info
- test/find information to support the hypothesis
illness script
- a representation of a specific illness constructed from past experiences
- includes the fault, consequences and enabling factors
- really a schema not a script
Inexperienced doctors show ______ difference in diagnostic accuracy than experts when they are given enabling factors compared to when they aren’t.
less
structured reflection
having doctors identify symptoms that fit their hypotheses as well as the ones that don’t and then asking them to rank the likelihood of each hypothesis
availability bias
when an encounter with a recent diagnosis is “available” in the mind and thus more likely to be chosen in a future similarly-presenting case
premature closure
jumping to conclusions
What is the difference between system 1 and system 2 reasoning?
1 - fast-acting, intuitive
2 - analytical, slower
Human reasoning relies more on system ___. Why?
system 1
it utilizes long-term memory more and is quicker
Most errors arise from
a. knowledge gaps
b. thought processes errors
B
Norman and colleagues posit that errors can arise from 2 sources, namely…
cognitive biases
knowledge deficits
More processing time correlates with _____ errors.
more
What are the 3 strategies used to reduce errors in clinical reasoning?
- training to recognize biases and heuristics
- reflective practice
- encouraging clinicians to slow down and think more deliberately
Errors can arise from
a. system 1
b. system 2
c. both
C
structure theories focus on…
underlying knowledge structures that lead to diagnostic hypotheses
causal networks
explain the causes and consequences of diseases in terms of underlying biological/pathophysiological processes
knowledge encapsulation
taking lower-level detailed concepts and encapsulating them into a smaller number of higher-level concepts
What are the 4 transitory stages in the development of medical expertise?
- forming causal networks
- encapsulating this knowledge
- transition to use of illness scripts
- storage of specific instances where scripts were used
dual process model of thinking
thinking is done using type 1 and type 2 systems
From a cognitive architecture standpoint, is multitasking possible?
- not when dealing with two complex tasks that both need to utilize working memory
- the best we can do is switch back and forth quickly however this tends to lead to more mistakes
What is the problem of testing learning styles?
they utilize self-report and nominal categories which is not representative of reality
the meshing hypothesis
the theoretical basis for crossover interactions
crossover interactions
type A learners learn best with instruction method A and type B learners learn best with instruction method B
andragogy
focusing on the best ways for people learn
heutagogy
focusing on learning how to learn and learner self-direction
What is the shift from andragogy to heutagogy?
Replacing teacher instruction with student self-directed learning
The 4C/ID model is used for…
learning complex skills
recurrent skills
skills that are rule-based or automated and used consistently throughout the practice
nonrecurrent skills
schema-based skills requiring support information and problem solving
holistic design approach
an integrative approach that simultaneously stimulates schema construction of nonrecurrent aspects and schema automation of recurrent aspects
What comes first?
a. whole-task practice
b. part-task practice
A
Why is the holistic approach preferred over the atomistic approach? (3)
- encourages cognitive schema construction
- gives the learner context, teaching in a manner that shows the relevance of what is being taught
- encourages knowledge transfer
What are the 4 aspects of the 4C/ID model?
- learning tasks
- part tasks
- supportive information
- procedural information (just-in-time info)
What 3 types of skills are identified in the 4C/ID model?
- recurrent
- to-be-automated recurrent
- nonrecurrent
Learning a new procedure can be ______ for experts than novices. Why?
- more difficult
- because they need to replace an already acquired schema
- it is especially difficult if it is an automated/recurrent procedure
transfer paradox
It seems intuitive that increasing germane cognitive load should be avoided when learning complex tasks however this is not the case. The opposite encourages more knowledge transfer.
What is the central theme of the 3 learning myths?
That students know best and they should be in control of their learning
What are the 3 learning myths?
- As digital natives learners know how to utilize technology to learn
- Learning styles
- Learners should be in control of what they learn (learners as self-educators)
homo zappiens
- the generation that has grown up with technology
- they are assumed to learn differently
butterfly defect
learners are seduced by links and end up “fluttering” across the web not going in depth and effectively learning about a topic or even forgetting what they are looking for
Can equal comprehension be achieved when juggling tasks as opposed to focusing on one task?
Yes but it takes more time
Student-directed learning leads to 3 problems
- learners (especially novices) often utilize this control in misguided or counterproductive ways
- learners tend to choose what they prefer but this may not be what is best
- paradox of choice
paradox of choice
the more choices the more difficult it is to make a choice
shared control
a 2-step process where the educator first chooses various tasks and problems and lets the learner choose from them
learning tasks (2)
- aimed at integrating routine and non-routine skills and knowledge
- provide authentic whole-task experiences
inductive learning
learning by doing from concrete experiences
part-task practice (3)
- additional practice for routine activities
- the goal is repetition to automation
- presented AFTER whole-task practice
supportive information
cognitive strategies and mental models
procedural information (3)
- comes before the learning of routine aspects
- specifies how to perform these routines
- “just-in-time” information
4 aims of the 4C/ID
- learning tasks facilitate inductive learning
- supportive information facilitates elaboration
- procedural information facilitates rule formation
- part-task practice strengthens the rules
