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BioPsych > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What happens to rods in high light?

A

They get bleached

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2
Q

Receptors found densely packed in the fovea are called

A

cones

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3
Q

cones provide ____ % of vision input to the brain

A

90

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4
Q

trichromatic theory

A

Also known as the Young-Helmholtz theory, the trichromatic theory suggests that we discriminate among wavelengths of light by the ratio of activity across the three types of cones (short-, medium-, and long-wavelength).

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5
Q

opponent process theory

A

The opponent process theory suggests that we perceive color in terms of opposites (for example, yellow and blue) and can explain such visual artifacts as an afterimage.

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6
Q

retinex theory

A

The retinex theory explains phenomenon such as color constancy and suggests that the cortex compares information from various parts of the retina to determine features such as brightness and color. Relies on cortex to gather memories

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7
Q

Lateral inhibition

A

activity in one neuron reduces the activity in neighboring neurons. This allows for us to clearly see edges. This is why looking at very contrasting colors can make the edges defined.

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8
Q

prosopagnosia

A

inability to recognize faces

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9
Q

Gregor Mendel is responsible for:

A

introducing concept of genes

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10
Q

T or F: part of a chromosome may alter the expression of another part without coding for any protein of its own

A

True

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11
Q

what models messenger RNA

A

one strand of DNA

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12
Q

what does messenger RNA do

A

synthesizes a protein

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13
Q

Proteins consist of ____ amino acids, which are determined by ____ base pairs in the RNA strand.

A

20, 3

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14
Q

What are the base pairs for tryptophan?

A

uracil, guanine, guanine

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15
Q

homozygous v. heterozygous

A

matched genes on pairs of chromosomes v. unmatched

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16
Q

alleles

A

variations in nucleotide sequence for the same gene between chromosome strands

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17
Q

autosomal genes

A

not sex-linked

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18
Q

Is the X or Y chromosome usually associated with sec-linked genes?

A

When biologists speak of sex-linked genes, they usually mean X-linked genes. The Y chromosome is small, with relatively few genes of its own, but it also has sites that influence the functioning of genes on other chromosomes.

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19
Q

If a recessive form of a sex-linked gene produces color-blindness, will men or women be more likely to be color-blind?

A

men - they have no other X chromosome to even it out

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20
Q

sex-limited genes

A

activated more in one sex due to hormones, typically during puberty

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21
Q

A mutation is

A

a heritable change in DNA, typically just one base change, typically not advantageous

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22
Q

T or F: epigenetics can be inherited

A

true

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23
Q

how are genes activated?

A

partially unwinding from histones and chemical groups attaching to histone tails which helps loosen the grip.

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24
Q

Steps of Development of Neurons

A

Proliferation, Migration, Differentiation, Synaptogenesis, myelination

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25
Q

Proliferation

A

production of new cells, most proliferation occurs within 28 weeks of gestation

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26
Q

Migration

A

immunoglobins and chemokines move primitive cells to more permanent locations in the brain

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27
Q

Differentiation

A

Primitive cells take their permanent shape. For ex: neurons begin to form axons and dendrites.

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28
Q

Synaptogensis

A

Formation of synapses (occurs throughout life)

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29
Q

Myelination

A

Myelin sheath forms first over spinal cord - hindbrain - midbrain - forebrain (occurs during motor development, too)

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30
Q

synaptic pruning

A

synapses, or connections, are depleted as we no longer need them from childhood to adulthood

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31
Q

What area of the brain undergoes synaptogensis relatively regularly after birth?

A

hippocampus

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32
Q

What did C14 help scientists discover?

A

cell turnover, neuron replacement. Skin cell turned over every year whereas skeletal muscles/heart every 15. Brain cells except the hippocampus remained from birth.

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33
Q

How to axons reach specific targets?

A

Chemical gradients, sometimes produced by concentrations of proteins where axons need to go to serve a certain function.

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34
Q

Neural Darwinism

A

Chemical gradients only steer axons to about the right location. Only advantageous connections in the right spot are kept, others are rejected.

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35
Q

T or F: the sympathetic nervous system originally forms far more neurons than it needs.

A

True

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36
Q

T or F: the sympathetic nervous system originally forms far more neurons than it needs.

A

True

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37
Q

T or F: The muscle sends messages to the ganglion to tell them which and how many axons to form.

A

False - Extra axons sprawl out to muscles and when the correct protein is formed, the remaining die out.

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38
Q

Nerve Growth Factor

A

A protein that promotes neuron survival when the axon projects onto the muscle.

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39
Q

Apoptosis

A

programmed mechanism of cell death (when NGF does not arrive, or due to other deadly mutations)

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40
Q

Teratogens

A

anything a person is exposed to or ingests during pregnancy that’s known to cause fetal abnormalities

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41
Q

How does alcohol affect neuron development?

A

Alcohol promotes GABA, which inhibits/reduces excitation, and lessens glutamate, a primary inhibitory transmitter. This forces cells to receive not enough excitation to prevent them from undergoing apoptosis, which then thins necessary parts of the brain.

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42
Q

T or F: Sensory input has no effect on how the cortex develops.

A

False - in studies done on animals, lesioning typical visual areas leaving the optic nerve no place to connect as it usually does, vision was the result of new connections with the thalamus and auditory areas.

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43
Q

What is some evidence of learning in terms of neurons?

A

A stimulating environment enhances sprouting of axons and dendrites

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44
Q

What is some evidence of learning in terms of neurons?

A

A stimulating environment enhances sprouting of axons and dendrites

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45
Q

What is the far transfer effect?

A

Practicing one exercise may improve ability on an unrelated task. However, only practicing what you actually want to improve seems the best route to enhance learning (strengthening of synapses)

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46
Q

Agonist

A

mimics neurotransmitters and directly effects cells by fitting into a receptor or influencing more reuptake/more neurotransmitters to be released. Ex: nictone & acetlycholine receptors and morphine & opioid receptors

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47
Q

Antagonist

A

prevents neurotransmitters from having their effect (ex: narcan and naloxone on opiod receptors)

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48
Q

How do drugs work?

A

Affect transmission at the synapse

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49
Q

mixed agonist-antagonist

A

agonist for some effects and an antagonist for others, or an agonist at some doses and an antagonist at others.

50
Q

affinity

A

strength between drug and receptor

51
Q

efficacy

A

how well a drug activates a receptor

52
Q

A person’s _____ ___ _______ can influence how much a drug affects them.

A

number of receptors

53
Q

How is alcohol metabolized?

A

ethyl alcohol - acetaldehyde - (via acetaldehyde dehydrogenase) - Acetic Acid

54
Q

Why is a predisposition to low acetaldehyde dehydrogenase an indicator of low likelihood for alcohol abuse?

A

Without an ability to break down the toxic acetaldehyde from alcohol, it produces hangovers (a punishment for drinking). Acetic acid, on the other hand, produces energy.

55
Q

nucleus accumbens

A

main dopamine release area in the brain, near septum, located in rostral ventral forebrain

56
Q

Cravings are reminiscent of damage to the prefrontal cortex, because:

A

After users have learned a response or a preference, they are slow to update it in response to new information

57
Q

craving

A

search for the substance

58
Q

repeated cocaine use desensitizes what and sensitizes what?

A

desensitizes: the reinforcing quality of the drug
sensitizes: cues associated with the drug

59
Q

During abstinence from drug use, what occurs in the NA?

A

craving increases then decreases slightly, partly due to glutamate synapses here (most abundant excitatory NT and important in memory and learning)

60
Q

Tolerance

A

decrease of all but mostly pleasant affects tied to the use of a drug after repeated use

61
Q

How does tolerance work?

A

Learned process by which cues are associated with the drug itself, counteracting the reward inherent in the drug

62
Q

withdrawal

A

abstinence from drug after repeated usage

63
Q

severe alcohol withdrawal problems

A

hallucinations, convulsions, fever, and cardiovascular problems.

64
Q

Possible hypothesis for addiction

A

way to prevent stress (including stress of withdrawal) - avoid positive and negative punishments

65
Q

Possible hypothesis for addiction

A

way to prevent stress (including stress of withdrawal) - avoid positive and negative punishments
drug relieves the distress caused by drug withdrawal. That learning can generalize to other situations, so that users crave the drug during other kinds of distress.

66
Q

Effective substance abuse treatments

A

CBT, support groups, medication, contingency management (rewards for no drug use)

67
Q

Antabuse

A

reduces enzyme that metabolizes alcohol

68
Q

naltrexone

A

blocks opiate receptors which in turn makes alcohol less pleasurable

69
Q

methadone

A

same effects as heroine and morphine and binds to same receptors, except it diffuses slowly reducing disrupting behaviors; withdrawal also gradual

70
Q

NA role in MDD

A

becomes less active and stimulated by reward

71
Q

Marked symptoms of MDD

A
  • absence of happiness
    -anhedonia
  • loss of energy, appetite change
72
Q

Main causes of depression

A

genetic, environmental, brain abnormality

73
Q

Which side of the prefrontal cortex works stronger for people with depression?

A

right (during the gaze test when thinking of a word puzzle, these people tend to stare off to the left)

74
Q

categories of antidepressants

A

tricyclics, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and atypical antidepressants

75
Q

tricyclics

A

any of a class of antidepressant drugs having molecules with 3 fused rings

76
Q

relationship between alcohol and neurotransmitters

A

Alcohol in a person increases the inhibitory NT GABA, and decreases the effects of the excitatory NT Glutamate

77
Q

Alcohol _____ stress for most, but even more so for children of alcoholics.

A

decreases

78
Q

How many dopamine pathways exist

A

at least 4

79
Q

SSRIs

A

they block reuptake of serotonin to increase availability in the cell (Prozac and Zoloft)

80
Q

SNRIs

A

block reuptake of norepinephrine AND serotonin, positive relationship w memory and few side effects (ex: cymbalta)

81
Q

MAOIs

A

Block the enzyme monoamine oxidase that metabolizes (rids of) catecholamines and serotonin into inactive forms
Results in more transmitters in the presynaptic terminal available for release

82
Q

BDNF

A
  • essential for brain plasticity (adapting, learning, memory), nerve survival and growth, NT modulation
    -widely expressed in brain and gut
83
Q

How may ECT work?

A

increasing BDNF and encourages cell division in hippocampus (though could also impair memory if not at right voltage)

84
Q

SAD

A

due to dysfunction of endogenous clock and melatonin, light therapy and CBT seem effective
genetic mutations in PER3 gene linked to circadian rhythms

85
Q

schizophrenia

A

genetic: DISC1 gene responsible for neurogenesis mutated through micro depletion
environmental: season of birth effect (winter/far from equator may be linked to higher rates due to infection)
brain abnormalities: small hippocampus and PFC, large ventricles, reduced matter

86
Q

negative symptom examples

A

low social drive, apathy, anhedonia, poverty of speech

87
Q

Schizophrenia treatments

A

Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
relieves positive symptoms

88
Q

Dopamine Hypothesis of schizophrenia

A

Schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain areas of the brain

89
Q

Substance-induced psychotic disorder

A

Hallucinations and delusions resulting from repeated large doses of amphetamines, methamphetamines, or cocaine
Each prolongs activity at dopamine synapses

90
Q

The Glutamate Hypothesis of schizophrenia

A

deficient activity at glutamate synapses, especially in the prefrontal cortex

In many brain areas, dopamine inhibits glutamate release

Alternately, glutamate stimulates neurons that inhibit dopamine release
Increased dopamine thus produces the same effects as decreased glutamate

91
Q

BPD and lithium

A

Lithium stabilizes mood, preventing a relapse into either mania or depression. The dose must be regulated carefully, as a low dose is ineffective and a high dose is toxic. The mechanism of effect evidently has something to do with cells in the hippocampus. The hippocampus forms new neurons throughout life, and some of those that form in bipolar patients are hyperexcitable. Lithium relieves bipolar disorder only if it alleviates the hyperexcitability

92
Q

Law of Specific Nerve Energies (Müller)

A

Action potentials from visual nerves interpret what we know as vision and particular energy from some neurons determines our perception of vision

93
Q

Blind spot is also:

A

optic disc

94
Q

Small opening which light passes in the eye

A

pupil

95
Q

contains photoreceptors, sends cells out through optic nerve

A

retina

96
Q

Visual info goes from the optic nerve to _________ then _____.

A

the thalamus, v1 (striate cortex of occipital lobe)

97
Q

Visual info goes from the optic nerve to _________ then _____.

A

the thalamus, v1 (striate cortex of occipital lobe)

98
Q

the LGN is in the

A

thalamus

99
Q

Order of cell communication to send light info to the brain

A

Receptors – Bipolar Cells – (amacrine) - Ganglion Cells

100
Q

the optic nerve is a bundle of ________ of ______ ________.

A

axons, ganglion cells

101
Q

characteristics of the fovea

A

-high number of receptors
- free of ganglion axons
- acute vision
- 1:1:1 ratio of cells (midget ganglion cells) so cones each have direct access to the brain

102
Q

Peripheral vision is good in low light why?

A

cells converge onto each other funneling down from rods to amacrine cells to ganglion cells

103
Q

photopigments

A

release energy and enact second messenger (in photoreceptors)
- 11-cis-retinal wrapped around opsin proteins turns into all - transretinal due to light

104
Q

short wavelength

A

blue

105
Q

long wavelength

A

red

106
Q

medium wavelength

A

green

107
Q

receptive fields

A

whatever excites or inhibits the cell - for receptors it is light striking it

108
Q

Parvocellular Neurons

A

Have smaller cell bodies and small receptive fields

Highly sensitive to detect color and visual detail
(fovea)

109
Q

Magnocellular Neurons

A

Distributed evenly throughout the retina

Have larger cell bodies and visual fields

Highly sensitive to large overall pattern and moving stimuli

110
Q

koniocellular Neurons

A

Have small cell bodies

Found throughout the retina

Have several functions, and their axons terminate in many different places

Help to with brightness contrast, color contrast, relays short waves

111
Q

Blindsight results in damage to

A

v1

112
Q

Simple cells

A
  • v1
    -small receptive field
    -fixed ex and in zones
    -edges in certain orientaion
113
Q

complex and end-stopped

A

both v1 and v2, large receptive fields, but end-stopped have strong in zones
- bars of light

114
Q

critical periods

A

periods of time during the lifespan when experiences have a particularly strong/enduring effect

115
Q

stereoscopic depth perception

A

A method of perceiving distance, Relies on retinal disparity

116
Q

lazy eye

A

starbismus

117
Q

limited exposure during critical periods

A

Leads to nearly all of the visual cortex cells becoming responsive to only that pattern, leads to recognition problems

118
Q

ventral stream

A

temporal cortex, what, identifying objects

119
Q

dorsal stream

A

parietal cortex, where, where things are located

120
Q

visual agnosia

A

The inability to recognize objects

121
Q

MST

A

expansion, contraction, or rotation of a visual stimulus

122
Q

MT/v5

A

responds to movement in specific directions

BioPsych (3 decks)

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