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Neuroscience 402 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What establishes neural fate and function?

A

cell intrinsic mechanisms such as transcription factors and epigenetics

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2
Q

How do excitatory and inhibitory neurons form?

A

stem cell generates NE which forms NPCs; NPCs differentiate into neurons with neurotransmitter identity

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3
Q

Where does the first decision to form a neuron occur?

A

At the ectoderm when chordin and noggin diffuse into and induce neural fate

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4
Q

What is the antagonist of neural fate in the ectoderm?

A

BMP

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5
Q

Is the neural lineage the default fate of the ectoderm?

A

yes because dissociated animal cap with no BMP forms neurons

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6
Q

What is driving the default neuroectoderm fate?

A

transcription factors

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7
Q

What are the core transcription factors defining pluripotency?

A

SOX2, OCT4, and NANOG (SOX2 and OCT4 turn on NANOG)

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8
Q

What regulates self renewal in pluripotent cells?

A

SOX2 and OCT4

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9
Q

What transcription factors define neural pluripotent cells?

A

SOX2 and PAX6

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10
Q

What allows SOX2 to bind pluripotent genes?

A

Turn off BMP and turn of OCT4 allows SOX2 to bind other genes

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11
Q

What gives the neural lineage genes in the stem cells capable of being rapidly regulated?

A

SOX2 if it is ready to go

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12
Q

What structure marks key developmental genes in embryonic stem cells?

A

developmental genes are poised so a bivalent chromatin structure marks them

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13
Q

What are the two mechanisms for generating neural lineage?

A

abundantly expressed TF ready to initiate the lineage and permissive chromatin underlying neural genes ready to be expressed

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14
Q

What comes first to determine excitatory or inhibitory neurons?

A

the neuron followed by transcription factors

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15
Q

Which transcription factors establish glutamatergic neurons?

A

NeuroD1/4, ASCL1, Neurog2

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16
Q

Which transcription factors establish GABAergic neurons?

A

ASCL1 and DLX2

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17
Q

What are the steps for neurotransmitter identity development?

A
  1. cell fate determination
  2. migration
  3. axon guidance target recognition
  4. synapse formation (differentiation, maturation, modification)
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18
Q

What is the difference between symmetric and asymmetric division in neuron generation?

A

symmetric: npc forms 2 npcs
asymmetric: npc forms 1 npc and 1 neuron

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19
Q

Why does asymmetric division occur?

A

decreased notch in presumptive pro-neural cells initiates genes in the proneural network

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20
Q

What establishes the initial identity of neurotransmitters?

A

TFs established by morphogens

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21
Q

How are immediate early genes activated during neural activity?

A

they are activated by Ca2+

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22
Q

What are the 2 most common forms of neurodegenerative disease?

A

AD and PD

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23
Q

How is AD identified?

A

extensive atrophy and two types of abnormal deposits (amyloid plaques and tau tangles)

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24
Q

How is AD diagnosed?

A

Clinical symptoms, brain pathology, PET and PIB-PET imaging, biomarkers

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25
3 major pathological hallmarks of AD
neuronal loss (shrinkage of CTX and HC and enlarged ventricles) neurofibrillary tangles amyloid plaques
26
Abeta hypothesis
increased Abeta production via APP and presenilin 1/2 and no Abeta clearance with presence of TREM2, CD33 and ApoE
27
How is the Abeta hypothesis supported?
Human genetic studies (APP mutations) dynamic progressive changes of AD mouse genetic studies (decreased glutamatergic neurotransmission and LTP) cellular studies
28
How is the tau hypothesis supported?
dynamic progressive changes in AD mouse genetic studies tau spreading
29
GWAS studies identified which cell type in AD?
Microglia/neuroimmune
30
How is PD identifed?
resting tremors abnormal posture gait difficulties reduced muscle strength DA neuron loss alpha-synuclein and lewy bodies
31
How is the dopamine hypothesis supported?
L-Dopa animal models using MPTP
32
The targets of cocaine and amphetamine at DAergic synapse
amphetamine inhibits NE reuptake cocaine inhibits DAT
33
Can PD and AD be a systemic disorder?
yes they very well may be
34
How did the cerebellum evolve?
early in vertebrate evolution and is largely preserved
35
What are the two parts of the cerebellum?
cortex (cerebellar cortex) subcortical nuclei (deep cerebellar nuclei)
36
How many layers does the cerebellar cortex have?
3 layers
37
What does the cerebellum do?
improving motor control by smoothness, coordination, speed execution of non motor functions cognitive functions associative learning
38
What are examples of cerebellar learning?
Adaptation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) learned motor performance tasks eyeblink conditioning
39
What are the 3 lobes of the cerebellum?
anterior lobe posterior lobe flocculonodular lobe
40
What are the 3 subdivisions in the cerebellar cortex?
spinocerebellum cerebrocerebellum vestibulocerebellum
41
What is under the cerebellar cortex?
deep cerebellar nuclei
42
What are the IP and OP of the cerebellar nuclei?
IP from CTX OP to implement control
43
How is the cerebellar cortex arranged?
3 layers organized into repeated sagittal zones- 2 IP and 1 OP
44
What are the 2 IP in the basic circuit?
Mossy fibers that IP to CTX Climbing fibers that IP to CTX
45
How does classical conditioning work?
must be a change in the system to account for the altered response to the conditioned stimulus after repeated pairing with the US
46
Why study the hippocampus?
essential for certain forms of memories
47
What types of methods were designed to study the HC?
microelectrodes, tetrodes, extracellular field synaptic potential and population spikes, intracellular recordings, brain slice preparations, computational modeling
48
Hippocampal anatomy
hippocampus proper: CA1-3 hippocampal formation: CA, DG and entorhinal cortex (EC), subiculum, pre- and parasubiculum hilus: reciprocally connected to DG
49
The two types of circuits in the HC
Trisynaptic pathway direct pathway
50
Principal neurons in the HC
Dentate gyrus granule cells CA1 pyramidal neuron CA3 pyramidal neuron
51
HC functions
place cells and spatial memory episodic memory emotion and anxiety regulation of hypothalamic functions social behavior
52
The 3 different anatomical axis
proximal-distal axis (transverse) deep-superficial axis (radial) dorsal-ventral axis (long)
53
What are the HC rhythms?
Theta, gamma, sharp-wave ripple
54
Engram
physical location where a memory is stored
55
Patient H.M.
removed entire HC; couldn't form new memories and only retained long term declarative memories
56
How is the HC involved in long term memory?
HS is involved in making long term memories but can't be where they reside
57
What are the 4 major themes of memory function?
1. there are different types of memory 2. each type of memory is processed and stored in different brain regions 3. formation of long term memories occurs in stages 4. storage of long term memories is distributed
58
Long term declarative memory (explicit)
places, events, facts, people
59
Long term nondeclarative memory (implicit)
unconscious, practice piano you get better but you don't know why
60
short term (working memory)
distinct, seconds to minute
61
What could H.M. form memory wise?
new long term nondeclarative memories because implicit memories don't go through the HC
62
consolidation
the gradual process of memory storage starting with working memory in the prefrontal cortex and moving through the HC to the temporal lobe neocortex as long term declarative memory
63
Face cells of the temporal CTX
neurons that fire in response to a face
64
Delay period neurons
are direction selective; role in memory
65
olfactory tract
olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory epithelium project through the cribiform plate-> olfactory bulb which are in glomeruli and where mitral and tufted cells make contact-> olfactory tract projection of mitral and tufted cells-> primary olfactory cortex (medial temporal lobe)
66
How is sweet, umami and bitter taste detected?
GPCR type 1 and 2 receptors
67
How is salt and sour taste detected?
other receptors and ion channels
68
Taste pathway
taste receptor cells on tongue-> cranial nerves VII and IX-> nucleus solitaries-> thalamus-> bilateral taste cortices
69
Smell pathway in drosophila
Sensory neurons in antenna and maxillary pulp-> antennal lobe as a first order processing center-> mushroom body and leteral protocerebrum as second order processing centers
70
Signal transduction between mammals and insects during smell
Mammal: odorant binds OR and activates G alpha olf; G alpha activates ACIII and generates cAMP; cAMP binds ion channels allowing ion flux Insect: odorant binds OrX (determines what binds) which causes immediate ion flux through OrX and Or83b
71
Why are xenopus oocytes especially useful in odor research?
two electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology
72
What ion flow in for salty taste? sour?
salty: sodium sour: sodium and hydrogen
73
what receptors are used for bitter? sweet? umami?
bitter: tr2 sweet: t1r2+t1r3 umami: t1r1+t1r3
74
What are the 3 types of cells that make up taste buds?
type 1: no expression of taste receptor type 2: GPCR expressing type 3: non GPCR receptor
75
How does drosophila taste?
leg or wing
76
Why do we need central processing in addition to peripheral olfactory processing?
To create an internal predictive model of the world in order to anticipate the future and choose successful courses of action in response to external environmental changes
77
GABAergic modulation for phase coding
presynaptic inhibition: constant from spiking neurons or odor evoked postsynaptic inhibition: odor evoked fast from spiking interneurons or odor evoked slow from nonspiking interneurons
78
What did strowbridge find about GABAergic inhibition?
GABAa receptor sensitive excitatory GABAergic responses in mammalian olfactory mitral cell axons in olfactory bulb
79
How do insects smell vs mammals?
insects utilize environmental dynamics and mammals create dynamics by sniffing
80
Why do we need central processing in addition to peripheral olfactory processing?
central olfactory system uses past experiences to create internal models of the world that can be used to anticipate future event by identifying and categorizing different odor objects which allows the brain to make predictions about the environment based on past experiences with those odors
81
What component of olfactory processing is crucial for survival and successful adaptation to changing environmental conditions?
predictive coding

Neuroscience 402 (2 decks)

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