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BIO 102 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is Speciation

A

a splitting event that creates two or more distinct species from an ancestral species

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2
Q

What are the two steps that result in speciation

A

genetic isolation and genetic divergence

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3
Q

what is a species

A

an evolutionarily independent population or group of populations

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4
Q

what does the biological species concept say

A

species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations in nature that are reproductively isolated from other such groups

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5
Q

what is the main criterion of the biological species concept

A

reproductive isolation

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6
Q

what is prezygotic isolation

A

individuals of different species are prevented from mating successfully

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7
Q

what is postzygotic isolation

A

the hybrid offspring do not survive or reproduce

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8
Q

what are the types of prezygotic isolation

A

habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation

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9
Q

what is habitat isolation

A

populations are isolated because they breed in different habitats

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10
Q

what is temporal isolation

A

populations are isolated because they breed at different times

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11
Q

what is behavioral isolation

A

populations do not interbreed because they have different courtship displays

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12
Q

what is mechanical isolation

A

mating fails because males and female reproductive structures are incompatible

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13
Q

What is gametic barrier isolation

A

mating fails because eggs and sperm are incompatible

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14
Q

what are the types of postzygotic isolation

A

hybrid inviability and hybrid sterility

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15
Q

what is hybrid inviability

A

hybrid offspring do not develop normally and die at some point during early development

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16
Q

what is hybrid sterility

A

hybrid offspring mature but are sterile as adults

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17
Q

what are the disadvantages of the biological species concept

A

reproductive isolation cannot be evaluated in fossils and species that reproduce asexually and it cannot be applied to populations that do not overlap geographically

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18
Q

how does the morphospecies concept work?

A

it uses difference in morphological characters to distinguish species

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19
Q

according to the morphospecies concept, individual lineages differ in…

A

size, shape or other morphological features

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20
Q

according to the morphospecies concept, distinguishing features most likely arise if…

A

populations are independent and isolated from gene flow

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21
Q

the morphospecies concept equally applicable to what types of species

A

sexual, asexual and fossil species

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22
Q

the morphospecies concept is useful when there is no data on…

A

extent of gene flow

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23
Q

what are the disadvantages of the morphospecies concept

A

one polymorphic species may be classified as more than one species (they may have different phenotypes), it cannot identify cryptic species that differ in non-morphological traits and the features used to distinguish species under this concept are subjective

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24
Q

how does the phylogenetic species concept identify species

A

evolutionary history, it is based on the rationale that all species are related by common ancestry

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25
Q

what is a monophyletic group

A

an ancestral population plus all of its descendants (clade or lineage)

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26
Q

what is synapomorphy

A

a trait unique to a monophyletic group

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27
Q

what are the disadvantages of the phylogenetic species concept

A

phylogenies are currently available for only a tiny subset of populations on the tree of life, difficult to identify species in the field, can lead to recognition of many more species than either of the other species concepts: but may actually reflect the extent of life’s diversity

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28
Q

when does speciation begin

A

when gene flow between populations is reduced or eliminated, causing genetic isolation

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29
Q

what is allopatric speciation

A

when populations of the same species become geographically isolated

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30
Q

what is sympatric speciation

A

divergence of populations living within the same geographical area into different species

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31
Q

what are the types of allopatric speciation

A

dispersal and vicariance

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32
Q

what is allopatric speciation by dispersal

A

movement of individuals from one place to another (founder effect)

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33
Q

what is allopatric speciation by vicariance

A

a physical barrier splits populations into subgroups that are physically isolated from each other (through geographic isolation, genetic isolation and genetic divergence)

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34
Q

what is biogeography

A

study of how species and populations are distributed geographically and can tell us how dispersal and vicariance effects occur

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35
Q

what does it mean when populations livein sympatry

A

populations or species that live in the same geographic and are close enough to interbreed

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36
Q

what is sympatric speciation

A

speciation that occurs among populations within the same geographical area (can be initiated by 2 events- internal and external)

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37
Q

what is an external (extrinsic) event

A

ecological speciation or mate prefernces

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38
Q

what is an internal (intrinsic) event

A

polyploidy

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39
Q

when does reproductive/genetic isolation occur

A

when mating becomes increasingly nonrandom

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40
Q

when does genetic divergence occur

A

as mutation, genetic drift and selection increase the differences between populations over time

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41
Q

what is polyploidy

A

condition of possessing more than two complete sets of chromosomes caused by massive error in meiosis or mitosis

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42
Q

what is autopolyploidy

A

individuals are produced when a mutation results in a doubling of the chromosome number; chromosomes are all from the same species (create tetraploids)

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43
Q

what is allopolyploidy

A

individuals are created when parents of different species mate and an error in mitosis occurs, resulting in a viable, nonsterile offspring; produces offspring with 2 different sets of chromosomes (allopolyploid offspring have 2 copies of each of the 2 sets of chromosomes)

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44
Q

what type of polyploidy forms new species

A

allopolyploidy

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45
Q

if divergence and prezygotic isolation exists…

A

mating between populations is rare, gene flow is minimal and populations continue to diverge

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46
Q

what is a hybrid zone

A

a geographic area where interbreeding between 2 populations occurs and hybrid offspring are common

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47
Q

if two populations have diverged extensively and are genetically distinct…

A

the fitness of hybrid offspring will be lower than the parents fitness

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48
Q

when postzygotic isolation occurs…

A

there is strong natural selection against interbreeding

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49
Q

what natural selection for traits that prevent interbreeding among populations called

A

reinforcement (permanent separation of gene pools)

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50
Q

what is homology

A

the state of having the same or similar relation, relative position, or structure.

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51
Q

what is homoplasy

A

the development of organs or other bodily structures within different species, which resemble each other and have the same functions, but did not have a common ancestral origin (convergent evolution)

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52
Q

what are the two tools for studying life’s history

A

phylogenetic tree and the fossil record

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53
Q

what is phylogeny

A

the branching evolutionary history of a group of organisms

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54
Q

what is a phylogenetic tree

A

a simplified diagram of the evolutionary history of a group of organisms (the most universal tree is the tree of life)

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55
Q

how are phylogenetic trees used in taxonomy

A

they describe, name and classify species and taxa (higher-level groups)

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56
Q

how are phylogenetic trees used in medicine

A

to study the spread of disease

57
Q

phylogenetic trees can aid in identifying species that are a…

A

conservation policy

58
Q

what is an outgroup

A

a species that diverged before the other taxon

59
Q

what do nodes represent

A

speciation events

60
Q

what are closely related taxa depicted as

A

sister groups that share a common ancestor

61
Q

are phylogentic trees true or a hypothesis that can be tested

A

a hypothesis that can be tested

62
Q

what is a fossil

A

the physical evidence from an organism that lived in the past

63
Q

what is the fossil record

A

the total collection of fossils that have been found throughout the world, it provides direct evidence about what organisms from the past looked like, where they lived and when they existed

64
Q

what is fossilization

A

the physical, chemical, biological processes that lead to the preservation of plant and animal remains over time

65
Q

what are the ideal conditions in which fossils form under

A

they must be buried rapidly and they must decompose slowly

66
Q

what are the 5 types of fossils

A

intact fossils, compression fossils, cast fossils, demineralized fossils, trace fossils (ichnology)

67
Q

what are intact fossils

A

fossils that form when decomposition does not occur and the organic remains are preserved intact (pollen and bones)

68
Q

what are compression fossils

A

fossils that form when sediments accumulate on top of the organism and become cemented into rocks such as mudstone or shale, the sediments’ weight compress the organic material below into a thin, carbonaceous fil, (mostly in leaves)

69
Q

what are cast fossils

A

fossils that form when a buried organism decomposes, leaving an empty cavity in the sediments that fills with dissolved minerals and hardens into an accurate cast of the remains (ammonite, trilobites, snails)

70
Q

what are demineralized fossils

A

fossils that forms when organisms decompose extremely slowly, dissolved minerals gradually infiltrate the interior of the cells and harden into stone (petrified wood, bones)

71
Q

what are trace fossils

A

fossils that form when sedimentation and mineralization preserve indirect evidence of an organism in the environment; including footprints, tracks, burrow, feeding marks and feces

72
Q

what are the limitations of the fossil record

A

habitat bias, taxonomic and tissue bias, temporal bias and abundance bias

73
Q

what is habitat bias

A

organisms that live where sediment is actively being deposited are more likely to fossilize; in these habitats, burrowing organisms are more likely to fossilize compared to organisms living above ground

74
Q

what is taxonomic and tissue bias

A

when organism with hard parts are more likely to leave fossil evidence because tissues with a tough outer coat that resists decay (pollen grains) fossilize more readily

75
Q

what is temporal bias

A

recent fossils are more common than ancient fossils; the older the fossil is, the longer it has been exposed to potentially destructive forces in deep layers of rocks

76
Q

what is abundance bias

A

organisms that are abundant, widespread, and present for a long time leave evidence much more often than do species that are rare, local or ephemeral

77
Q

what is ecology (broad)

A

the study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment

78
Q

what is the scientific definition of ecology

A

the scientific study of processes influencing the distribution and abundance of organisms, the interactions among organisms, and the interactions between organism and the transformation and flux of energy and matter

79
Q

what are the levels of ecological study

A

organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems and biosphere

80
Q

what do organismal ecologists explore

A

morphological, physiological and behavioral adaptations

81
Q

what are adaptations

A

heritable traits that increase fitness of an individual in a particular area

82
Q

what is a population

A

a group of individuals of the same species that lives in the same area at the same time

83
Q

what do population ecologists study

A

how the number and distribution of individuals in a population change over time

84
Q

what does a biological community consist of

A

the species that interact with one another within a particular area

85
Q

what do community ecologists study

A

the nature and consequences of the interactions (predation, parasitism, competition) between species

86
Q

what is an ecosystem

A

all the organisms in a particular region, along with nonliving (abiotic) components

87
Q

what do ecosystem ecologists study

A

how nutrients and energy move among organisms, through the surrounding atmosphere and soil or water

88
Q

what is the biosphere

A

the thin zone surrounding the earth where all life exists

89
Q

what do global ecologists study

A

the effects of human impacts on the biosphere

90
Q

what is conservation biology

A

the effort to study, preserve and restore threatened populations, communities and ecosystems

91
Q

what is a niche

A

the range of conditions a species can tolerate and resources it can use (a product of abiotic and biotic factors that affect where a particular species lives)

92
Q

what is a fitness trade-off

A

evolutionary compromises between traits that cannot be optimized simultaneously

93
Q

what is dispersal

A

organism movement from place of origin to the location where it lives and breeds as an adult

94
Q

what is weather

A

short-term atmospheric conditions of temperature, precipitation, sunlight and wind

95
Q

what is climate

A

long-term weather conditions found in an area

96
Q

what is specific heat

A

capacity for storing heat energy

97
Q

what are biomes

A

regions characterized by distinct abiotic characteristics and dominant vegetation types

98
Q

what is net primary productivity

A

total amount of biomass generated by the carbon that is fixed per year minus the amount of oxidized during cellular respiration

99
Q

what is biomass

A

the total mass of organisms, primary producers in this case

100
Q

what does NPP represent

A

organic matter available as food for other organisms

101
Q

how is NPP estimated in terrestrial environments

A

measuring aboveground biomass

102
Q

the artic tundra has what NPP

A

low npp (low temp)

103
Q

the boreal forest has what NPP

A

low npp but higher than the arctic (low temp, moderate precipitation)

104
Q

the temperate forest has what NPP

A

medium npp (moderate temp, moderate precipitation)

105
Q

the temperate grassland has what NPP

A

medium npp (moderate temp, moderate precipitation)

106
Q

the desert/dry shrubland has what NPP

A

low NPP (low precipitation, high temperature)

107
Q

the tropical wet forest has what NPP

A

high NPP (high precipitation, high temp)

108
Q

what are anthropogenic biomes (anthromes)

A

globally significant ecological patterns created by sustained interactions between humans and ecosystems

109
Q

what is the anthropocene

A

the name for the new epoch of history scientists came up with due to the explosion of human populations creating significant impacts

110
Q

what are the two broad types of aquatic biomes

A

freshwater/streams and oceans

111
Q

what are the four abiotic factors that distinguish streams from oceans

A

salinity, water depth and sunlight availability, water flow, nutrient availability

112
Q

what is salinity

A

the proportion of solutes dissolved in water measures parts per thousand

113
Q

why is salinity a major determinant of species distributions

A

it has dramatic effects on osmosis and water balance in organisms because species are adapted to specific ranges of salinity (physiological adaptation)

114
Q

why is water depth and sunlight availability important

A

water absorbs and scatters light, so the amount and types of wavelengths available to organisms change dramatically as water depth increase

115
Q

what are the ocean zones defined by

A

water depth and light availability

116
Q

what is the intertidal zone

A

submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide

117
Q

what is the neritic zone

A

from the intertidal zone to about 200m, defined by the continental shelf

118
Q

what is the continental shelf

A

gently sloping, submerged portion of a continental plate

119
Q

where are coral reefs foudn

A

the neritic zone

120
Q

what is the oceanic zone

A

the “open-ocean,” deep water region beyond the continental shelf

121
Q

what is the benthic zone

A

the bottom of the ocean at all depths

122
Q

what is the photic zone

A

regions that are sunlit, include the intertidal and portions of the neritic, oceanic and benthic zones

123
Q

what is the aphotic zone

A

areas that do not receive sunlight

124
Q

what are lake zones defined by

A

water depth and sunlight availability

125
Q

what are the two lake zones

A

littoral (seashore) zone and limnetic zone

126
Q

what is the littoral zone

A

shallow waters along the shore, where plants can take root

127
Q

what is the limnetic zone

A

offshore, comprises water that receives enough light to support photosynthesis, too deep for plants to take root

128
Q

what are the causes of turbidity

A

erosion of river sediments or coastal sediments and runoff from agriculture and algal blooms/nutrient pollution

129
Q

why is water flow important

A

it affects avaiability of oxygen, light and nutrienst

130
Q

what are the factors of rapid flowing water

A

high oxygen, clear water, low in nutrients

131
Q

what are the factors of stagnant water (estuaries)

A

less oxygen, murky water, high nutrients

132
Q

how does water flow present a physical challenge

A

organisms in areas with fast flow need beneficial body shapes and behavioral adaptations to help them cope with fast flow- organisms in the intertidal zone need adaptations to deal with violent waves (hold foot)

133
Q

how is nutrient availability important

A

nutrients (nitrogen and phosphates) limit growth rates in photosyntehtic organisms that provide food for other species

134
Q

how does the photic zone get nutrients

A

coastal runoff, ocean upwelling, lake turnover

135
Q

what is coastal runoff

A

as water rushes down mountains and streams get wider and slow, nutrients gather sink and collect at the bottom as debris; in estuaries where freshwater rivers meet the ocean, nutrients are plentiful

136
Q

what is ocean upwelling

A

nutrients that have fallen into the benthic regions are brought to the surface by currents that cause upwellings; as the surface water moves away from the coast, it is steadily replaced by nutrient rich water moving up form the ocean bottom

137
Q

what is lake turnover

A

each year, glacially formed lakes undergo spring and fall turnovers in response to air temp changes

138
Q

what happens without spring and fall turnovers

A

most freshwater nutrients would remain on the bottom of lakes (and there would be less productivity)

BIO 102 (1 decks)

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