Exam 2 Flashcards
What is bureaucracy?
An administrative organization responsible for carrying out day-to-day business of government
How many cabinet departments are there?
15
What are the characteristics of bureaucracy?
Coordination issues, competing missions, competition for money/influence/status, competing subcultures, red tape, tensions between bureaucrats and officials appointed by the president
What did the New Deal do for bureaucracy?
Created new economic agencies
How did WWII and CW aid the bureaucracy?
Created new national security agencies
What is the complexity of policymaking cycles for FP issues?
Agenda setting, policy formation, policy implementation
What is the rational actor model?
There us a pyramid of authority, with presidential leadership at the top, leaders are rational and defend the national interest
What is groupthink?
Policymaking happened in small groups, but that group overestimates its morality and competency, leading to outside opinions being shut down
What is the governmental polictics model?
Power is diffuse and there is no dominant actor, so the FP process revolves around competition, leading to bad decisions
Why did Obama announce he would be sending 33,000 more troops to Afghanistan in Dec 2009, but say that the surge would only last 18 months?
Political competition between the military who wanted to prove they couldn’t be defeated and political leaders, who wanted a short surge to get Obama reelected
What is the organizational process model?
Bureaucracy is the independent driving force behind policy
How can the challenger disaster be explained?
The U.S. space program was driven by government bureaucracies and corporate bureaucracies, so strategic pressure, business pressure, downplayed safety issues
How do interbranch politics affect policy?
The constitution is an invitation to struggle, and members of Congress all have different ways to influence policy
What are key determinants of congressional policies?
Pros and cons of policies, electoral concerns, quest for funds, national public opinion, partisanship, policy preferences
What is the budget of the state department?
$55 b
How many employees does the state department have?
75,000
What are the functions of the state department?
- Represent the US government abroad
- Report the views of foreigners to the U.S. government
- Conduct diplomacy and negotiations abroad
- Analyze foreign events
- Provide policy advice to the president
What is diplomacy?
The processes and institutions by which the interests and identities of sovereign states are represented to one another
What are smaller responsibilities of the state department?
Foreign aid and public diplomacy
When was USAID created?
1961
Who is the head of the state department?
The Secretary of State
What is the inside out dilemma the Secretary of State faces?
He must advise the president but also defend the interests of the state department
What are the state department thematic bureaus?
Political affairs, economic growth, energy, and environment, arms control and international security affairs, civilian security, diplomacy, and HR, public diplomacy and public affairs, management
What are the geographic bureaus of the state department?
Africa, East Asia and Pacific, European and Eurasian, Near Eastern, South and Central Asian affairs, Western hemisphere
How many embassies/consulates/diplomatic missions does the U.S. have?
300
What is an ambassador?
Senior U.S. official within the country
How long is the rotation state officials take abroad?
3 year tours
What is the most prestigious bureau?
Europe
How many foreign service members are there?
13,000
What is the subculture of the foreign service like?
Elitist, tight bonds, prefer overseas experience, resistant, no risk taking, think they know better
How has U.S. diplomacy expanded?
Involvement in international organizations, involvement in the domestic politics of other states, involvement in transnational issues, public diplomacy
What are some recent diplomatic successes?
1991: coalition against Iraq
2021: G7 summit in defense of democracy
2022: NATO opposition to Russia
What are the causes of the decline of the state department?
Expansion of FP bureaucracy, budget decline, global communication revolution, unprecedented military dominance
What is military power?
Set of instruments and capabilities which confer the capacity to bring about intended political objectives through the display, threat and use of force
What is the power of the US military?
Greatest in world history but not nearly as effective a fighting force as commonly believed
What is the structure of the DoD?
Office of the secretary of defense, joint chiefs of staff, the services
What is the goal of the office of the secretary of defense?
Ensure civilian control (retired military can become secdef 7 years after retirement)
What are the missions of the joint chiefs of staff?
Coordinate the services and advise the president
What is the mission of the services?
Implement decisions
What are the problems with the services?
Huge size, each service has their own objectives/standards/subcultures, and the services are decentralized
What did the Goldwater nichols act (1986) do?
Increased authority to OSD, JCS, and president
What does the day to day administration of the military do?
Budget, personnel, weapons development and deployment
What is the problem with the advisory process in the military?
Tensions between civilian and military leaders, presidents skeptical of military advice, use of force differences
Why did Truman fire Gen MacArthur in 1951?
Insubordination
What does the operational process of the military include?
6 major regions, and 4 major functional areas
What is the modern U.S. military culture like?
Emphasis on management, quest for new hardware, careerism, separation between politics and combat, concentration of force to defeat the enemy, growing emphasis on jointness
What might problems of information look like in the military?
The bureaucracies are enormous and tend to distort information to advance political interests
What are coordination problems the military may face?
Size, decentralization, specialization, rivalries
What is an example of duplication in the military?
The US has the Air Force, as well as the army Air Force, the naval air arm, and marine air force
What was the military like pre WWII?
Small career military as well as a citizen militia armed forces use abroad 163 times
How was there slow integration of new warfare principles in the 20th century?
Mass mobilization, propaganda, role of the home front, systematic exploitation of technical/scientific inventions, need to coordinate land/sea/air power
How was the military expanded during the Cold War?
There was a large permanent military, Defense in Depth in Eurasia, National Security Act, NATO, rising military budget
What was the US approach to combat?
Concentration of firepower
When was NATO created?
1949
When was the national security act passed?
1947
What were the conclusions of Weinberger-Powell (1984) and Powell (1992) doctrines?
Commitment of US forces only as a last resort, and only under the conditions that it would be vital to US interests, has clearly defined objectives, supported by the people/Congress, use of decisive force, and had a clear exit strategy
What did US military power look like at the end of the Cold War?
$300M a year budget, 1,000 bases/properties in the US, 500,000 troops abroad, 330 major bases abroad
What was the revolution of military affairs?
The emergence of technologies so disruptive that they overtake existing military concepts and capabilities and necessitate a rethinking of how, with what, and by whom war is waged, need to radically reform the US military
What was new COIN?
New counterinsurgency, a popular strategy in 2006-2012 with the goal of turning the tide of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan
What were the assumptions of new COIN?
The US military needs to win hearts and minds, so they would minimize civilian casualties, promote a legitimate local government, help rebuild local economies, and show cultural awareness
What were the problems of new COIN?
Inherent limitations, hostile reactions within the military, and it did not turn the tide of the war
What was the policy towards the US military under Trump and Biden?
Boosting the budget, downgrading the war on terror, and a return to great power competition (with China and Russia)
What are the causes of American military primacy?
Wealth, accumulation of a huge military budget, tech advancement, quality of personnel, Cold War legacies
What was the DoD budget in 2023?
$858B
What percentage of the world’s military expenditures are the United States?
50%
How many members of the US military are there?
2.1 M
How many military bases does the US have?
800
What are the commons?
Areas that belong to no one state and provide access to much of the globe
How does America have command of the sea commons?
Aircraft carriers and stealthy nuclear attack submarines
How does America have command over the air commons?
Stealth aircraft
How does America have command of the space commons?
Reconnaissance, communications, weapons guidance
What is the infrastructure of command?
Bases, logistical chain, and unified command plan
What are the advantage of the command of the commons?
Mobility to wage war on short notice anywhere, ability to encircle the enemy, unmatched intelligence collection, synergies with allies in various regions
Why must the US avoid the enemy’s homeland and peripheries, even as it has command of the commons?
In those areas, the enemy has a deeper commitment to victory, has support under the local population, knows the local terrain, and can use cheap low-tech to counter the US
What are the purposes of intelligence?
Collecting and analyzing information, counterintelligence, and covert political and paramilitary operations
What is collecting and analyzing information in intelligence?
The primary purpose of intelligence to help leaders make better decisions
What are the most common methods of collecting and analyzing intelligence information?
Human sources, electronic signals, photography, open sources
What is counterintelligence?
Preventing foreign espionage, subversion, sabotage
What is the purpose of covert political and paramilitary operations?
Destabilizing enemy regimes
What are the concerns about covert operations?
Low cost, but ethically dubious and could backfire
What might be the problem with signal intelligence?
Too many signals and a lack of context
What might be the problems with human intelligence?
Putting people’s lives at risk and ask foreigners to betray their country
What might happen with foreign intelligence partnerships?
Foreign services know the language and terrain, but there’s a risk of misunderstanding, manipulation, and interception
What are the key problems affecting collection and analysis of intel?
Lack of presidential attention, insufficient inter-agency coordination, signal to noise problem, and politicization of intellegence
What is an example of a president’s lack of attention?
In January 2001, a memo from the US counterterrorism chief said they needed to review Al Qaeda, but the first meeting would not take place until September 4, 2001
What is an example of insufficient interagency coordination?
The FBI and the CIA did not share information before 9/11
What is the signal to noise problem?
Indications of an attack are collected, but they are a drop in an ocean of information, so it takes time to isolate relevant information
How has intelligence been politicized?
Political leaders cherry pick intel insights to build a specific narrative and political leaders press intelligence to write reports that suit their goals
What are examples of politicization of intelligence?
Mid 60s: White House forced the CIA to build a specific narrative around Vietnam
2001-2003: White House pressures to exaggerate Iraq’s nuclear ambitions
What are the DoD intelligence agencies?
National Security Agency (NSA), National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)
How much of ever dollar spent on intelligence goes toward DoD intelligence?
80%
What does the NSA do?
Collection of SIGINT
What does the NRO and NGA do?
Coordinate spy planes, satellites, etc
What does the DIA do?
Better coordinate DoD intelligence to influence civilian leaders better
What are the non-DoD intelligence organizations?
State Department bureau of intelligence and research, FBI, Intel units in the Department of treasury
What does the state department bureau of intelligence and research do?
Analysis
What is the goal of the FBI?
Counterintelligence at home
What do intel units in the Department of Treasury do?
Protect the US financial system from illicit use
When was the CIA created?
1947
What are the operations of the CIA?
Espionage, counter intelligence abroad, covert operations
When was the Office of the Director of National Intelligence created?
In 2004, as response to 9/11
What does the National Intelligence Council do?
Coordinate intelligence activities across the US government, disseminate intelligence, produce national intelligence estimates that summarize the whole intel community’s take on a topic
When was the Department of Homeland Security created?
2004
What is the goal of the Department of Homeland Security?
Prevent another 9/11
What was intelligence like in the first century of America?
Limited resources and no interest outside of times of war
When was the first permanent intelligence service created?
1882, office of naval intelligence
What expansion did intelligence take during WWII?
Broke Japan’s communications codes, Office of Strategic Services created (1942) to sabotage/propaganda/espionage behind enemy lines, global intelligence network
Why was there dramatic expansion of intelligence during the Cold War?
To spy on the Soviets and the failure to keep the Manhattan Project secret
Why was there a growing reliance on SIGINT and PHOTINT during the Cold War?
Failure to gather HUMINT
When was the NSA created?
1952
When was the U2 spy plane created?
1956
When was the Corona Satellite launched?
1959
When was the five eyes established?
1946
What are the five eyes states?
US, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
What was the five eyes?
A group of countries with deep political and cultural affinities, very secret, with a global reach sharing intellegence
What happened in the 70s that caused the backlash towards intelligence?
Congressional investigations on secret intel activities, leading to declining budgets and legislative constraints
Why was there a revival of intelligence in the 80s?
When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, the CIA had covert operations to support Islamic holy warriors
Where did the CIA have operations in the 80s with the anticommunist buildup?
Central America, Angola, Libya, Ethiopia, Iran
Why was there a post-9/11 revival of intelligence?
There was a need for arabic speakers and a huge budget increase
What are some of the controversies of intelligence post-9/11?
CIA run prisons, torture, domestic surveillance, drone strikes
How many intelligence reports on terrorism are produced per year?
50,000
What happened in the NSA Surveillance Scandal (2013)?
Edward Snowden, a former CIA contractor, leaked documents which showed US/UK efforts to tap into fiber optic cables worldwide, monitor 35 leaders, and spy on 38 consulates
What was the intelligence crisis under Trump?
Trump presented intelligence agencies as the deep state and ignored intelligence meetings and reports
What was the budget for intelligence in 2022?
$66B + $24B for special military intel programs
What are the current priorities of intelligence?
“Over-the-horizon” counter terrorism (special ops/drones) and intensified great power competition
Why does the intelligence system need reforms?
Many agencies leads to paralysis and conflict, rigid intelligence culture, talent gap, new technological challenges, great power competition
How many intelligence agencies are there?
18
What challenges does intelligence face in the wake of the Internet Age?
How to maintain secrecy and can private corporations be trusted
How has intelligence benefitted from the Internet Age?
There are more ways to hurt the enemy, and, during the Ukraine War, cellphone cameras and social media led the US to win the battle of the narratives and assist/train Ukraine
What are cyber threats?
Efforts to attack, compromise, destroy, disrupt, or exploit activities involving computer networks, software, and hardware/infrastructure
What is an example of a cyber threat?
Possible hacking of nuclear systems, transmitting false launch orders or sabotaging/destroying nuclear assets
What is the challenge with artificial intelligence?
Enemies will create increasingly sophisticated deep fakes, that will become indistinguishable from reality
What has happened to Chinese intelligence under Xi Jinping?
They have had growing resources and power, with 260 intel satellites (2x compared to 2018) and 50,000-100,000 cyber troops
How has China’s counterintelligence changed recently?
It is increasingly effective, with more arrests and executions of CIA assets and growing surveillance
How much money does the US loose from Chinese IP theft?
$225-600 B per year
How do we know that America’s intelligence is unmatched?
Most advanced technical power, US corporation control of Internet’s global infrastructure, offensive cyber operations, and global network of allies and bases
What are the main executive economic agencies?
Treasury department, USAID, Department of commerce, Department of Agriculture, Department of Labor
What does the Treasury Department do?
Trade and monetary issues and represents the US government in international organizations
What does USAID do?
Economic development policy abroad
What does the Department of Commerce do?
Promotes international trade
What does the Department of Agriculture do?
Push agricultural sales abroad
What executive agencies are part of the EOP?
Office of management and Budget, Office of US trade representative, National Economic Council
Why are there executive agencies in the EOP?
Created to help the president, are smaller and in the White House
What are the trends of economic policy?
Growing presidential attention to economic matters in USFP, growing expertise, and growing coordination in bureaucracy
What are the current challenges of economic policy?
Persistent decentralization and many constraints beyond the US government
What are the constraints on economic policy outside of the US government
Congress, states, lobbies, multinationals, outside world
What is the purpose of America’s foreign economic policy?
Ensure US prosperity for American people, optimize America’s geoeconomic strategy, help transnational corporations maximize profits
What is geoeconomic strategy?
Using economic interests to advance strategic objectives
Why does the government want to help transnational corporations?
The US government is controlled by big corporations, especially big banks
Of Obama’s top 30 leaders, how many had corporate affiliations (2009)?
22
What was economic policy like before WWII?
Some early successes, but relative neglect
What successes did the US have in economic policy before WWII?
Ensured internal economic development, protected domestic industries, promoted commerce abroad, protected foreign investments, and leveraged the US market to keep other countries close strategically
In what ways was there relative neglect of US foreign economic policy before WWII?
Lack of interest, lack of expertise, and a turn inward after the Great Depression
How much of the world’s economy was the US in 1945?
50%
What did the Bretton Woods agreements do?
Led to a US led liberal order, free trade, financial stability, cooperation in US led international organizations to promote capitalism and US business norms
What were some economic initiatives taken abroad during the Cold War?
Marshall plan in Europe, opening America’s market to help allies prosper, USAID (1961)
What was the goal of economic politics in the Cold War?
Compete better with the Soviet Union
Why was there relative economic decline in the 1960s?
There was slower growth than Japan and Western Europe, growing inflation, growing unemployment, growing US dependency on the Middle East oil resources
What was done to try to reverse the relative economic decline in the 60s?
New economic management institutions, more aggressive US stance toward allies, development of a more dynamic neoliberal model
Why did Clinton make foreign economic policy?
Globalization and growing interdependence
What did Clinton do to make foreign economic policy a priority?
Created the National Economic Council, pushed for free markets and financial deregulation, major trade agreements, efforts to open China and Russia’s economies, and new international organizations
What does the NEC do?
Coordinates policy debates, advises the president, and checks implementation of policies
When was NAFTA created?
1994
When was the WTO created?
1995
What did Bush Jr’s foreign economic policy look like?
More unilateral policies in international organizations, ruinous wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, major tax cuts, more financial deregulation
What were the causes of the 2008 financial crisis?
Financial deregulation under Clinton and Bush Jr, and growing debt
What was the US response to the 2008 financial crisis?
Bush: $700B bailout for the financial and banking sectors
Obama: Stimulus package to rekindle economic growth, launch of Obamacare, working with China to stabilize the global economy
What were the consequences of the 2008 financial crisis?
Stabilization, but questions about the decline of US power and the US capitalist market, as well as growing domestic inequality and partisanship
In what way was Trump a response to the financial crisis?
Trump exploited the backlash against globalization, inequalities, and the elite, and had a nationalist approach
What were Trump’s major policies about foreign economic policy?
Opposed international organizations, renegotiated agreements with America’s allies, protected vital sectors of activity, imposed sanctions and tariffs, and trade war against China
In what ways is Biden’s economic policy different from Trump’s?
Less aggressive towards allies, re-engage in international organizations, new investments in infrastructure, green tech, and other advanced tech, and reconciling the people with globalization
In what ways is Biden’s economic policy a continuity of Trump’s?
The US is still very protectionist, use of sanctions, expansion of trade war
What were Trump’s policies on China?
Raised barriers of China’s economic influence in the US, pressured allies to restrict China’s influence in their economies (Huawei), and launched a trade war
How did Trump’s trade war hurt the US?
.7% of US GDP was lost, corporations lost $1.7 trillion in stocks, 300,000 jobs were lost
What were Biden’s economic policies on China?
Choking China’s technological progress and encourage other countries to stop China’s economic rise
How did Biden try to choke China’s technological progress?
Exploiting China’s dependency on foreign chip technologies and restrict China’s access to America’s chip tools/equipment/software globally
What challenges does Biden’s China policy face?
Hurting China’s economic development hurts everyone, risk of war is on the rise, China’s economic appeal remains huge, and the US is not as appealing as it used to be
Why is China’s economic appeal so huge?
It is the world’s largest trading power ($4.2 T in 2021)
Why is the US not as appealing economically as it used too be?
Decline of US share to global GDP, too many protectionist policies, too many sanctions on other states
When did the US join the Trans Pacific Partnership?
2016
What is the Trans Pacific Partnership?
A huge trade agreement designed to pull Asian states away from China
When did the US pull out of the TPP?
2017
Why can’t Biden re-join the TPP?
It would be too unpopular
What are the impacts of the withdrawal from the TPP?
The US lost its best opportunity to constrain China’s rise and China has been able to sign new trade deals with Asian states in the absence of the TPP
Why is the Constitution an invitation to struggle?
It’s a short, ambiguous document made by negotiation and compromise
What was the lesson of the revolutionary war for US leadership?
There needs to be a commander in chief, and the president is the best person for that
What has been the trend over time for Congress-Presidential power sharing?
Congress ceding ground to the President
Why has Congress ceded ground to the President?
Growing presidential expertise on war and peace, expanding presidential claims, lack of war declaration
How many times has Congress declared war in US history?
5
What questions are left unanswered about power sharing between Congress and the President in terms of war?
Can the president modify defense ties? Can the president open new military bases abroad?
What are the powers on Congress according to the Constitution?
Regulate commerce, declare war, raise and support armies, advice and content on treaties and appointments, power of the purse, power to make new laws, power of oversight
How does Congressional interest in foreign policy vary?
Some members are foreign policy entrepreneurs, but most have limited knowledge of foreign policy
What are Congressmen most driven by?
Electoral concerns
Why has Congress rejected the DoD request to close 30% of its US facilities?
They bring jobs, so they strengthen electoral prospects
What are the means of influence for Congress?
Legislative activities (laws, budget, etc) and non-legislative activities (committees, reports, statements, informal exchanges)
What is a compliant congress like?
Approves Us government policy and will just go along with it
What is a resistant Congress like?
Requests modifications to the US government policy
What is a rejection Congress like?
Opposes US government policy
What is an independent Congress like?
Takes initiatives of their own
What are executive dominated domains?
US of force, diplomacy, intel
What are legislative dominated domains?
Aid, appropriations
What did Senator Jesse Helms do in the mid to late 90s?
He was the chair of the foreign relations committee, and he wanted to abolish some executive agencies, so he stopped meetings of the FR committee, blocked treaties, and froze state department promotions to force concessions
What can Congress do using its advice and consent powers on international treaties?
Prevent a vote, impose revisions, and raise media attention
How do presidents skirt the advice and consent powers?
Relying on executive agreements
How are executive agreements different from treaties?
They do not require Congressional approval
How many international agreements was the US part of from 1789-2000?
1,800
What percent of international agreements are executive agreements?
90%
How can Congress use the power of the purse to influence foreign policy?
Greenlight/reject government programs and allocate money to those programs, example: foreign aid
What are the two biggest uses bow the Congressional power of oversight and investigation?
1975: overreach of intelligence
2001: 9/11 commission
What was the relationship like between Congress and the President during the early Cold War (1945-1966)?
Bipartisan support
What was the congressional accommodation era (1945-1950) like?
Support to Truman’s initiatives against the Soviet Union
What was the congressional partial antagonism era (1951-1955) like?
Conservative concerns not enough was being done to win the Cold War, suspicions of communist infiltration in government, Hollywood, etc (aka McCarthyism)
What was the congressional acquiescence era (1955-1965) like?
Height of bipartisanship and compliance, no input on entering Vietnam
What was Congressional awakening (1966-1969) like?
Efforts to change foreign aid from military more towards development/humanitarian and hearings about US actions in Vietnam
What caused Congressional re-assertiveness in the 70s?
Failure of Vietnam, Watergate, abuses of government agencies
When did the US terminate funding of direct US involvement in Vietnam?
1973
When was the War powers act passed?
1973
What institutional evolutions strengthened Congressional re-assertiveness?
More diverse and polarized membership, growing number of subcommittees, evolving norms (less respect for seniority leading to more strident voices) and larger budgets and staff
What does the war powers act do?
The president must consult Congress at every possible opportunity before sending in armed forces, must submit a report within 48 hours, terminate involvement in 60 days, with an additional 30 days if necessary
What is the problem with the war powers act?
Presidents often circumvented it and congress tends to be very ambiguous
What percentage of the time did members vote with their parties in the late 80s?
80-85%
What percentage o0f the time did members vote with their parties in 2015?
90-95%
What are the main causes of growing polarity?
The Soviet Union, declining share of Congressman who served in the military, and growing number of terms where the WH and Congressional chambers were dominated by different parties
What is the counter argument to growing polarization?
Divisions are not between parties but on specific issues
What is order driven FP?
Protecting the post WWII liberal order
What is values driven FP?
Protecting human rights and religious values
What is limits driven FP?
Minimize the risks and costs of FP
What was the impact of the rally around the flag effect after 9/11?
Use of military force abroad and domestic surveillance, but eventual growing pushback against presidential abuses and mistakes and democrats winning 2006 midterms
What was Obama’s Congresses characterized by?
Paralysis, with growing economic disputes, ideological divides and growing partisanship
What did Obama do to counteract growing paralysis in Congress?
Relied on executive orders, like the Iran nuclear deal (2015) and the Paris accords (2015)
What was the problem with Obama’s reliance on executive orders?
They would be reversed by Trump
What was Trump’s Congress characterized by?
While he was supported by a Republican congress, Trump was often marginalized on foreign policy issues, and Democrats would take the House in 2018
What is Biden’s Congress characterized by?
A thin majority in the House and Senate, but better than expected results in the 2022 midterms and divided Republicans
What are current factors of bipartisan unity?
Russia’s attack on Ukraine (though Republicans can’t agree on aid) and China’s rise
What is the Almond Lippman consensus?
Public opinion has no impact on foreign policy, as the public is uninterested and uninformed, leading policy makers to shape public opinion
What is the new consensus on the public’s role in foreign policy?
The traditional Almond Lippman consensus missed important connections
What is the multilayered approach to public opinion?
Recognize the need for different publics elite/attentive/mass, need to unpack the concept of opinion, and the impact of the public can be direct or indirect
What is the elite public?
A very small group of educated/upper-class/in positions of influence
What is the attentive public?
<10% of the population that is often a relay between the elites and the mass public
What is the mass public?
90% of the population, who are much less involved, with up to 20% of which have no interest in foreign policy
What is public opinion?
The views of the public on specific issues
What is public ideology?
People’s beliefs about society
What is political culture and national style?
How people see themselves and see the US in the world
When might the public have a direct impact on foreign policy?
During crises and strong public views constraining the US government on specific issues
When might the public have an indirect impact on foreign policy?
Presidential election choosing who will make FP for 4 years and public approval
What percent of people in the early-mid 60s had never heard of the Vietnam War?
25%
What percent of people in the early-mid 60s could describe the meaning of the Cold War?
50%
What percent of people in the early-mid 60s could find England on a map?
65%
What fraction of people in 1988 could not name a single member of NATO?
1/3
What percent of people in 1988 were unable to locate the Persian Gulf on a map?
75%
What percent of people in 1988 could not locate the US on a map?
14%
What are the recent trends towards public knowledge of foreign policy?
More information available, but declining interest levels and people increasingly embracing the views of their favorite party without question
What is ideology?
Beliefs about the ends and means of society, forms early in life and tends not to change
What was the early Cold War ideological consensus?
Democracy and capitalism was against communism
Why did the “New Left” emerge in the late 50s-70s?
Vietnam, segregation, poverty, and Watergate
What led to the resurgence of the right in the late 70s-80s?
A response to the new left, against moral decay, need for economic deregulation and need for a reassertion of US power
What is liberal internationalism?
Inspired by the new left, a group that sought the possibility of cooperation with the communist world, to reduce poverty in the Third World, and cooperation in international organizations
What is conservative internationalism?
Inspired by the resurgence of the right, they sought a need to re-assert anti-communism, had no hesitation to use military power, and stress the moral/religous dimensions of USFP
What is neoconservatism?
Military power can promote democracy and the US should act unilaterally if necessary
What is non internationalism?
The world is too complex to be understood or influenced, so the US needs to only focus on vital areas and needs to de-escalate military commitments
Why was there volatile fragmentation in the wake of the Cold War?
No arch enemy to help strengthen America’s national cohesion, rise of multiculturalism leading to more internal divisions, and globalization led to shifting interests and economic shocks
Is the US public renouncing international engagement?
Survey results vary tremendously
What percentage of Americans in 2010 supported international engagement and what time period did that compare to?
67%, 1947
What percent of people believed in 2016 that the US should mind its business?
57%
What are the beliefs Americans have about US national style?
American innocence, benevolence, exceptionalism and a sense of mission
What are the foreign policy implications of American political culture and national style?
Many noble actions, but also naive or self-serving views of US history, and exacerbated nationalism, moral crusades, a rejection of dissent, and major swings in attitude on the world
What is the political leadership model?
Leaders shape public opinion
What is the political representation model?
Leaders and the public influence each other
What is the political responsiveness model?
Leaders often follow public opinion
What are the different views on leaders behavior before an election?
Leaders promote peace to show statesmanship, leaders use force to show credibility/toughness, leaders do not change positions, and leaders follow whatever foreign policy opinions the people prefer
What are interest groups?
Organizations made up with people who share common interests and work together to advocate for those interests with the government
What are the ingredients for success of interest groups?
Money, membership size and education level, group cohesiveness, and effective leaders
What is the access-to-power approach?
Using lobbyists to access senior government officials
What is the technocratic approach?
Using lobbyists to influence mid level government officials
What is coalition building?
Allying with other interest groups to advocate mutual interests
What is grassroots mobilization?
Rally mass support to influence the debate
What are the means of influence lobbyists use?
Paying lobbying firms, spreading information, engaging in litigation, organizing demonstrations, and attracting media coverage
What are lobbying firms?
Professional firms hired by individual organizations and companies too influence policy decisions in government
How has lobbying expanded in recent decades?
Before 1999, $.5B was spent on lobbying, in 2018 it was $3.4B with 12,000 lobbies, and lobbying has become a revolving door
What was the trend of foreign policy interest groups in the 40s and 50s?
Rise in numbers and resources
What are the main types of interest groups?
National security and public policy groups, veterans and military support groups, businesses and corporations, labor unions, religious groups, and ethnic/national groups
What was the trend of interest groups post-Vietnam?
3x the number, more issue and cause oriented groups, increasingly powerful commercial lobbies, increasingly effective religious and ethnic lobbies
What is the deal with foreign lobbies?
They have existed throughout American history, with more than 140 foreign governments hiring foreign lobbyists in DC, as well as foreign corporations
When did the military industrial complex rise?
Post WWII and early Cold War
What are the 4 main members of the MIC?
The military, military corporations, Congress, academia, think tanks, and the scientific community
What is the role of the military in the MIC?
Determines the country’s security strategy, wants higher budgets and influence
What is the role of military corporations in the MIC?
Build weapons, want big military contracts
What is the role of Congress in the MIC?
Votes the budget, wants Pentagon and corporations to build bases/businesses in key Congressional districts
What is the role of academic, think tanks, and the scientific community in the MIC?
Develop scientific knowledge and write pro-interventionist studies, want grants/donations from USG or corporations
What is the revolving door system?
Members of the military-industrial complex move from one sector to another
Wha t is one potential reason the US spends so much on nukes?
Lucrative contracts
What are the problems with the MIC?
Militarization of foreign policy beyond rational need, corruption, too many military fiascos, no accountability, intellectual distortion to influence the public , no real debate in FP community, democratic recession, diversion of resources away from the people
Why is the MIC so influential?
Exploits American nationalism/exceptionalism, has developed sophisticated political/ bureaucratic techniques, economic relevance of defense expenses
Why do some defend the MIC?
It ensures US security, promote its interests, protect its allies, and enhance global stability
What is the Israel lobby?
Loose coalition of individuals and organizations that work to move US foreign policy in a pro-Israel direction, lead by AIPAC
What are the methods the USG has used to support Israel?
Statements, political donations, election of pro-Israeli candidates, pressure the media for favorable coverage
What are the main assets of the Israeli lobby?
Wealthy, well-organized, and concentration of Jewish voters in key states
What are the critiques against the existence of the Israel lobby?
Little evidence of Israeli lobby, US foreign policy resulting from many factors, and US supports Israel out of national interest, as it is a democracy surrounded by dictatorships and terrorists
What percent of the media was owned by 50 corporations in 1983?
90%
How many daily newspapers were there in the 90s?
1,500
What are the 5 firms that control 90% of US mass media?
AT&T (CNN), Walt Disney Company (ABC), Murdoch’s News Corporation (Fox News, WSJ), Comcast (NBC), National Amusements (CBS, Viacom)
What percent of people get their news from TV?
49%
What percent of people get their news from news websites?
33%
What percent of people get their news from social media?
20%
What percent of people get their news from print?
16%
What are the advantages of the internet and social media for news?
Expanded access, independent amateur journalists/bloggers can produce quality content, more diverse voices, unfiltered communication with the public for policymakers
What are the problems of internet and social media?
Economic challenge to the news media, too much information, questionable quality, information bubbles, fake news, vulnerability to political manipulation
What are some examples of growing partisanship in the news?
Fox News and Iraq, Trump and Fox News, systematic opposition to Trump by CNN/MSNBC
What percent of news stories are FP?
10-40%
What percent did news coverage of FP decline following the CW?
70%
What foreign policy topics were covered in the media in 1979?
US activities abroad, foreign events affecting the US, East West relations, changes in heads of state, natural disasters, excesses of foreign dictators
What FP topics were covered by the media in 2018?
Wealthy/powerful/similar countries, emphasis on negative events, little interest in long term causes, neglect of developing world, tendency to dramatize the news, Manichean coverage
What was the media like during WWII?
Consensus on fighting for freedom against the Axis
What was media coverage like during the CW?
No government censorship (except during Korea), but a consensus
What was media coverage like post Vietnam?
Collapse of the Cold War consensus
What was media coverage like post CW?
Diversification of foreign policy views
What was media coverage like post 9/11?
Temporary subservience to the Global War on Terror
What was media like during the Trump presidency?
Quasi-systematic opposition to the WH
What was media like during the Trump presidency?
Quasi-systematic opposition to the WH
What was the George Washington model of communication with the public?
He feared democracy, so limits on communication and “republican schoolmaster”
What is modern presidential communication like?
Public addresses and press conferences
Why is the media dependent on the President?
Legitimate and highly credible source and exploitation of classified information
What was communication like post CW?
Sophisticated propaganda, more presidential statements, deliberate leaks of information, informal censorship, but limits to a president’s influence
Why do some say that the media may shape policymakers’ views?
The media sets the agenda, prevents some aspects of the news from being known, and frames events
Why do some scholars say the media shapes public opinion?
Agenda setting, gate-keeping, and framing
Why do some scholars say the media responds to the public?
Unengaged lapdog vs engaged watchdog
What are the four positions on the debate on who drives the relationship between media and FP?
Media shapes policy makers, media shapes public, media responds to public, media responds to policy makers
What are the pros of the media’s performance?
No overall, systematic bias, and improved quality over time
What are some problems with the media’s performance?
Intellectual conformism, lack of depth, dependency on government sources
What is the beat system?
Reporters chasing a specific issue/institution
What is pack journalism?
Reporters chasing the same headline stories
What is the role of the media in terrorism?
Huge publicity (1972 Munich Olympic Attack), and planning for media coverage (OKC bombing), news as contagion
What percent of all TV news praised the Gulf War?
95%
How many out of 878 on air sources to major TV networks during the Gulf War were peace organizations?
1
How many false statements did Bush make during the Iraq War?
935
Why do scholars believe that there is lots of media coverage of Ukraine?
A higher degree of interest in white, blond Ukrainians, compared to others, like in the Yemen War
What is news coverage of Ukraine like?
More empathy with Ukraine, acts of violence seen as resistance and sovereignty, emotional, compared to Palestinian muslims
