Exam 2

Question 1

What are the 4 sources of personality data

Answer 1

Self-Report Data
Observer-Report Data
Test-Data
Life-Outcome Data

Question 2

Distinguish the characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of the Self-Report Data (S-Data) source of personality data

Answer 2

Characteristics: The questionnaire method utilizes surveys and Interviews. Data can be either Unstructured (Open-ended) or Structured (Multiple choice)

Strengths: Increased access to information about the individual

Weaknesses: Lack of honesty and lack of accuracy

Question 3

Distinguish the characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of the Observer-Report Data (O-Data) source of personality data

Answer 3

Characteristics: Sorced by informants/ 3rd parties

Naturalistic Observation (Observers witness and record events that occur in the normal course of the lives of their participants.)
Strengths: Gain information from realistic settings
Weaknesses: Uncontrollable/ unpredictable events

Artificial Observation (observe and record the behaviors of participants in a constructed setting )
Strengths: Can control the setting
Weaknesses: Observed behavior may lack realism

Question 4

Distinguish the characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of the Test-Data (T-Data) source of personality data

Answer 4

Characteristics: standardized tests or situations that focus on behavior. Could be obtained by Physiological Data (fMRI) or Projective techniques (ink-blot)

Strengths: Elicit behavior; Control context & setting; Test specific hypotheses

Weaknesses: Participants may alter responses that they perceive would be more favorable; Researcher’s influence

Question 5

Distinguish the characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of the Life-Outcome Data source of personality data

Answer 5

Characteristics: life events, activities, and outcomes in a person’s life that are available to public observation

Strengths: Important source of data about personality

Weaknesses:??

Question 6

Draw distinctions between natural observation and artificial settings.

Answer 6

Natural observations occur within the normal course of a subjects life and can elicit more natural responses, Artificial settings like a lab control more variables but at the risk of creating artificial responses

Question 7

Understand the benefits of triangulation.

Answer 7

+ All data sources have limitations
+ Best to use multiple sources of data

Question 8

Explain the use of reverse scoring on self-report questionnaires.

Answer 8

Used to counteract response sets like acquiescence (yeah saying). Tnumerical scoring scale runs in the opposite direction. The low end of the scale (1) results in the largest number of points.

Question 9

Define reliability and the 2 key aspects, accuracy and consistency.

Answer 9

Reliability is the degree to which an obtained measure represents the “true” level of the trait being measured.
In order to have high reliability, tests must be accurate (reflect a person’s true level) and consistent (all items are measuring the characteristic).

Question 10

Testing Reliability

Answer 10

1. Repeated measurement (repeat the same measurement over time)
2. Internal consistency reliability (Examine the relationships among the items themselves at a single point in time)
3. Inter-rater Reliability (obtain information from multiple observers O-data needed)

Question 11

Define validity and generalizability.

Answer 11

The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure vs. The degree to which a measure retains its validity across different contexts.

Question 12

Distinguish a study sample and population.

Answer 12

A study sample is a group which ideally represents the greater population which

Question 13

Explain the benefits of random sampling methods.

Answer 13

Avoids grouping bias from the researcher and is more likely to represent a population because of that.

Question 14

Distinguish the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of correlational studies versus experiments.

Answer 14

Both designs are concerned with the relationships among variables but…

correlational studies
Characteristics: variables typically covary and the values of variables are linked
Advantages: variables measured as they naturally occur; Pearson’s R/Correlation Coefficient Range

experiments
Characteristics: Variables have cause-effect relationship
Advantages: Variables are manipulated by the researcher

Question 15

Identify the purpose for conducting a case study.

Answer 15

Examine relationships between variables, within a given population.

Question 16

Describe the information conveyed by a correlation statistic, such as r = +.85 (direction and magnitude of the relationship between variables)

Answer 16

The closer to 1 the stronger the correlation +/-
.7 and up: Strong correlation
.4 to .6: Moderate
.1 to .3: Low

Question 17

Conditions

Answer 17

participants in each experimental condition are equivalent to each other at the beginning of the study

Question 18

Random assignment

Answer 18

Assignment in an experiment that is conducted randomly. If an experiment has manipulation between groups, random assignment of participants to experimental groups helps ensure that each group is equivalent.

Question 19

Manipulation

Answer 19

Researchers conducting experiments use manipulation in order to evaluate the influence of one variable (the manipulated or independent variable) on another (the dependent variable).
(counterbalancing some experiments, manipulation is within a single group)

Question 20

Compare cause-effect relationships in experiments versus variable relationships in correlational designs.

Answer 20

Cause and Effect:
Variable A than Variable B occurs. Cannot determine the cause and effect based on correlation alone

Variable relationships:
Positive correlation between variables resulting in an r result .7 <

Question 21

Understand the directionality issue and 3rd variable problem with correlational studies.

Answer 21

+ If there is difficulting to determine which is the cause and which is the effect you have run into the directionality issue because correlation doesn’t equal causation
+ The possibility that there is another variable that causes changes in the variables in your study

Question 22

Distinguish between the Independent Variable and Dependent Variable in experimental research.

Answer 22

Independent Variable - manipulated variable
Dependent Variable - changes based on independent

Question 23

Distinguish between the Experimental Condition and Control Condition in experimental research.

Answer 23

Experimental Condition - a condition where the independent is changed/manipulated
Control Condition - a condition where independent is held constant

Question 24

Interpret data (mean differences between conditions on the dependent variable) compared to a priori hypotheses.

Question 25

Explain research ethics for human participants in psychological research, including informed consent, debriefing

Question 26

Describe types of risks, additional protections for vulnerable populations

Question 27

Describe the components of an APA-formatted empirical report.

Answer 27

Abstract: Brief overview of study
Introduction: Background information, rationale and importance of study
Method: Study design, description of study sample and
sampling method
Results: Reports results of data analysis
Discussion: Interpretation of results, applications and limitations
References and Appendices: List of all references cited,

Question 28

Explain 3 approaches to identifying the most important traits: Lexical (including the 2 criteria), Statistical, and Theoretical.

Answer 28

Lexical (including the 2 criteria): Synonym frequency and Cross-cultural universality
Statistical: Identifies categories of related traits, called factors
Theoretical: Starts with a theory to determine which traits are important

Question 29

Understand the purpose for conducting a factor analysis.

Answer 29

Traits clump together to reduce large # of traits smaller # of categories. Used with the lexical approach

Question 30

Explain the Act Frequency formulation of traits.

Answer 30

traits are categories of acts Researchers look for repeated behaviors to determine trait formulation

Question 31

Describe the 5 factors of the Five-Factor Model

Answer 31

Openness - Creative, imaginative, cultured
Consciousness - Organized, neat, orderly
Extraversion - Talkative, assertive, forward,
Agreeableness - Sympathetic, understanding, sincere
Neuroticism - Calm, relaxed, stable

Question 32

Describe the empirical criticisms of the Five-Factor model, including the HEXACO expanded model.

Answer 32

1. Issues with the 5th factor (Openness) due to differences in definitions and replicability across languages
   and cultures
2. Comprehensiveness

Question 33

Define personality development

Answer 33

Personality Development Continuities, consistencies, and
stabilities in people over time and the ways in which people change over time.

Question 34

Identify rank order stability/instability, mean level stability/change, and personality coherence.

Answer 34

Rank order stability
+ Maintenance of individual position within a group.
Mean level stability and change
+ Constancy of or change in level in a population.
Personality coherence
+ Maintaining rank order in relation to others but changing the
manifestations of the trait.

Question 35

Identify the 3 levels of analysis of personality over time

Answer 35

Population level
+ Deals with changes and constancies that apply more or less
to everyone.
Group differences level
+ Deals with changes and constancies that affect different
groups differently.
Individual difference level
+ Focuses on individual differences in personality
development.

Question 36

Explain the mean level stability of broad personality factors in from childhood to adulthood, using the Big 5 Factors.

Answer 36

+ Moderate to high levels of stability in adulthood
+ Very little change in the average level of stability after
the age of 50.
+ There are small but consistent changes, especially
during the 20’s.
+ Openness, extraversion, and neuroticism decline with
age until 50.
+ Conscientiousness and agreeableness show a gradual
increase with time.

Question 37

Understand how self-esteem may change from adolescence through adulthood and whether adolescents are narcissistic or overconfident, as a cohort.

Answer 37

Ideal self – current self = self-esteem
adolescents are more narcissistic