Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the roles of the Hypothalamus?

A

-controls the five F’s: fighting, fleeing/freezing, feeding, and reproduction
-Controls the autonomic nervous system
-controls the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
-regulates circadian rhythms via the suprachiasmatic nucleus

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2
Q

What does the anterior pituitary gland do?

A

It indirectly releases hormones

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3
Q

What does the Posterior pituitary gland do?

A

It directly releases hormones

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4
Q

What are the roles of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

-prepares body for action
- “fight or flight”
-Spinal cord
-neurotransmitters
Preganglionic: acetylcholine
Post: norepinephrine

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5
Q

What are the two neurotransmitters released by the sympathetic nervous system?

A

acetylcholine and norepinephrine

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6
Q

What are the roles of the Parasympathetic nervous system?

A

-Para-> around
-restorative function
- “rest and digest”
-spinal cord-> ganglia near end organs-> end organ
Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine

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7
Q

What is the neurotransmitter released by the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

acetylcholine

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8
Q

What are the roles of the Cerebral Cortex?

A

-Contains hemispheres: right and left
- gyrus/ gyri (bumps)
-Sulcus/ sulci, fissures (grooves)
-large surface area as a result of folding (increase in surface area)

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9
Q

What are the roles of the Cerebellum?

A
  • “little brain”
    -Dorsal to pons
    -movement coordination, classical conditioning (associative learning)
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10
Q

what part of the brain are the tectum and tegmentum located in?

A

The midbrain

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11
Q

What are the roles of the Tectum?

A
  • “roof”
    -superior colliculus (reflexive orienting of eyes, head, ears)
    -inferior colliculus (sound/ auditory processing)
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12
Q

What are the roles of the Tegmentum?

A
  • “floor”
  • Species typical movement sequences (cat hiss, pouncing)
  • Cranial nerves
  • Nuclei that release modulatory neurotransmitters
    -dopamine
    -norepinephrine
    • serotonin
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13
Q

What neurotransmitters are released by the nuclei of the tegmentum?

A

dopamine
norepinephrine
serotonin

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14
Q

Roles of the glial cells

A

-Glia means glue
-functions: structural support, metabolic support, brain development, neural plasticity

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15
Q

What are different types of glial cells?

A

Astrocytes, Myelinating cells (oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, microglia)

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16
Q

What are the roles of Astrocytes?

A
  • “star shaped”
    -physical and metabolic support
    -blood brain barrier
    -regulate concentration of key ions for neural communication
    -regulate concentration of key neurotransmitters
    -shape brain development
    -regulate local blood flow
    -regulate/ influence communication between neurons
  • disruption linked to cognitive impairment, disease
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17
Q

What are the roles of Myelinating Cells?

A
  • Produce myelin or myelin sheath.
    -white, fatty substance
    -surrounds fatty neurons
    -The “white” in white matter
    -Provide electrical/ chemical insulation
    -make neuronal messages faster, less susceptible to noise
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18
Q

What is the role of Oligodendrocytes?

A

in brain and spinal cord, 1 to many neurons

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19
Q

What are the role of Schwann Cells?

A

in peripheral nervous system: 1 to 1, facilitate neuro-regeneration

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20
Q

What are the roles of Microglia?

A

clean- up damaged, dead tissue. Prune synapses in normal development and disease. Disruptions in microglia pruning-> impaired functional brain connectivity and social behavior

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21
Q

Where is Na+ concentrated?

A

Outside the cell

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22
Q

Where is K+ concentrated?

A

Inside the cell

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23
Q

Where is A- concentrated?

A

Inside the cell

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24
Q

Where is Cl- concentrated?

A

Outside the cell

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25
Q

What are the steps/ phases of action potential?

A

1.Onset at threshold
2. Rising phase-depolarization
3.Peak- at positive voltage
4.Falling phase- repolarization
5.Reset-refractory period

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26
Q

What happen during the onset at threshold?

A

+ input makes membrane potential more positive

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27
Q

What happens during rising phase?

A

Voltage-gated Na+ channels open, Na+ flows in

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28
Q

What happens at the peak?

A

-Voltage-gated Na+ channels close and deactivate; Voltage-gated K+ channels open

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29
Q

What happens at the falling phase?

A

-K+ flows out

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30
Q

What happens at the reset/ refractory period?

A

-Na+/ K+ pump restores [Na+], [K+]; voltage- gated K+ channels close

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31
Q

What are the steps in neurotransmitter release?

A
  1. Action potential propagates from soma
  2. Action potential arrival at synapse triggers neurotransmitter (NT) release
  3. NTs diffuse across synaptic cleft & bind to next neuron
32
Q

What occurs when the action potential propagates to the soma?

A
  • Soma receives input from dendrites
  • Axon hillock sums/integrates
  • If sum > threshold, AP “fires”
33
Q

What occurs when the action potentials arrives at the synapse?

A
  • Voltage-gated calcium Ca++ channels open
  • Ca++ causes synaptic vesicles to bind with presynaptic membrane & merge with it
  • NTs released via exocytosis
34
Q

What occurs when the NT’s diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to the next neuron?

A
  • NTs bind with receptors on postsynaptic membrane
  • Receptors respond
  • NTs unbind, are inactivated
35
Q

What are the two amino acid neurotransmitters?

A

Glutamate and GABA

36
Q

What the role of Glutamate?

A
  • Primary excitatory NT in CNS (~ 1/2 all synapses)
  • Role in learning (via NMDA receptor)
  • Transporters on neurons and glia (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes)
  • Linked to umami (savory) taste sensation, think monosodium glutamate (MSG)
37
Q

Which neurotransmitter is the primary excitatory in the CNS?

A

Glutamate

38
Q

What is the role of GABA?

A
  • Primary inhibitory NT in CNS
  • Excitatory in developing CNS, [Cl-] in&raquo_space; [Cl-] out
  • Binding sites for benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium), barbiturates, ethanol, etc.
  • Synthesized from glutamate
  • Inactivated by transporters
39
Q

What is the primary inhibitory NT in the CNS?

A

GABA

40
Q

When is GABA excitatory?

A

To help develop [Cl-] in&raquo_space; [Cl-] out

41
Q

What is the ionotropic type of GABA?

A

GABA-A, permeable to Cl-

42
Q

What is the metabotropic type of GABA?

A

GABA-B, permeable to K+

43
Q

What are the roles of Acetylcholine?

A
  • Primary NT of CNS output
  • Somatic nervous system (neuromuscular junction)
  • Autonomic nervous system
    o Sympathetic branch: preganglionic neuron
    o Parasympathetic branch: pre/postganglionic
  • Inactivation by acetylcholinesterase (AChE
44
Q

What neurotransmitters are monoamines?

A

Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Histamine
Melatonin

45
Q

What are the roles of dopamine?

A
  • Released by two pathways that originate in the midbrain tegmentum
    o Substantia nigra -> striatum, meso-striatal projection
    o Ventral tegmental area (VTA) -> nucleus accumbens, ventral striatum, hippocampus, amygdala, cortex; meso-limbo-cortical projection
  • DA Disruption linked to
    o Parkinson’s Disease (mesostriatal)
     DA agonists treat (agonists facilitate/increase transmission)
    o ADHD (mesolimbocortical)
    o Schizophrenia (mesolimbocortical)
     DA antagonists treat
    o Addiction (mesolimbocortical)
  • DA Inactivated by
    o Chemical breakdown
    o Dopamine transporter (DAT)
46
Q

Where is dopamine release?

A

In two pathways in the Tegmentum, the Substantia nigra, and the Ventral tegmental area

47
Q

What can disruption of dopamine lead to?

A

Parkinson’s disease, ADHD, Schizophrenia

48
Q

What are the roles of Norepinephrine?

A
  • Role in arousal, mood, eating, sexual behavior
  • Released by
    o locus coeruleus in pons/caudal tegmentum
  • Released by Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) onto targets in PNS
  • Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inactivates monoamines in neurons, glial cells
  • Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) increase NE, DA
    o Inhibiting inactivation ~ -(-1) = + 1
  • Treatment for depression, but side effects (dry mouth, nausea, headache, dizziness)
49
Q

Where is Norepinephrine released?

A

the Locus coeruleus in the pons/ caudal tegmentum, and the SNS onto targets in the PNS

50
Q

What are side effects of Norepinephrine?

A

Treatment for depression, but side effects (dry mouth, nausea, headache, dizziness)

51
Q

What are the roles of Serotonin

A
  • Released by raphe nuclei in brainstem
  • Role in mood, sleep, eating, pain, nausea, cognition, memory
  • Modulates release of other NTs
  • Most of body’s 5-HT regulates digestion
    o via Enteric Nervous System (in PNS)
  • 5-HT receptors
    o Seven families (5-HT 1-7) with 14 types
    o All but one metabotropic
  • Ecstasy (MDMA) disturbs serotonin
  • So does LSD
  • Fluoxetine (Prozac)
    o Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)
    o Inhibits reuptake -> increases extracellular concentration
    o Treats depression, panic, eating disorders, others
  • 5-HT3 receptor antagonists are anti-mimetics used in treating nausea
52
Q

Where is Serotonin released?

A

The raphe nuclei in the brainstem

53
Q

Increases in Serotonin can lead to?

A

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI)
o Inhibits reuptake -> increases extracellular concentration
o Treats depression, panic, eating disorders, others
* 5-HT3 receptor antagonists are anti-mimetics used in treating nausea

54
Q

What is the role of Histamine?

A

o Metabotropic receptors
o Role in arousal/sleep regulation
* In body, part of immune response

55
Q

Where is Histamine released?

A
  • In brain, released by hypothalamus, projects to whole brain
56
Q

What is the role of Melatonin?

A
  • Hormone released by pineal gland into bloodstream
  • Concentrations vary over the day, peak near bedtime
  • Release regulated by inputs from hypothalamus
57
Q

Where is Melatonin released?

A
  • Hormone released by pineal gland into bloodstream
58
Q

What are the roles of an Ionotropic Receptor?

A

o Recepter+ion channel
Ligand-gated
o Open/close ion channel
o Ions flow in/out depending on membrane voltage and ion type
o Fast-responding (< 2 ms), but short-duration effects (< 100 ms)

59
Q

What are the roles of metabotropic receptors?

A

o Trigger G-proteins attached to receptor
o G-proteins activate 2nd messengers
o 2nd messengers bind to, open/close adjacent channels or change metabolism
Slower, but longer-lasting effects

60
Q

What doe receptors generate?

A

postsynaptic potentials (PSPs)

61
Q

What are postsynaptic potentials (PSPs)

A

o Small voltage changes
o Amplitude scales with # of receptors activated
o Number of receptors activated ~ # of vesicles released

62
Q

What are Excitatory PSPs (EPSPs)?

A

o Depolarize neuron (make more +)
o Move membrane potential closer to threshold

63
Q

What are Inhibitory (IPSPs)?

A

o Hyperpolarize neuron (make more -)
Move membrane potential away from threshold

64
Q

What are the roles of Hormones?

A
  • Chemicals secreted into blood
  • Act on specific target tissues via receptors
  • Produce specific effects
65
Q

Can a substance be a neurotransmitter and a hormone?

A

Yes, if the substances are 1) released by neurons, 2) bind to neurons, and 3) bind to other cells in the body.

66
Q

What are the substances that are both neurotransmitters and hormones?

A

Substances that are both hormones and neurotransmitters
* Melatonin
* Epinephrine/adrenaline
* Oxytocin
* Vasopressin

67
Q

Where are Oxytocin and AVP released?

A
  • Hypothalamus (paraventricular nucleus, supraoptic nucleus) to Posterior pituitary
68
Q

What is the role of Oxytocin?

A
  • Targets milk ducts in breast tissue, also in sexual arousal, vaginal contractions during birth
69
Q

What is the role of Arginine Vasopressin (AVP)

A

also known as anti-diurectic hormone (ADH)

70
Q

What is the role of cortisol?

A

cortisol-related receptors widespread in brain
* increases blood glucose, anti-inflammatory
* negative consequences of prolonged exposure

71
Q

HPA axis/ SAM axis?

A
  • Neural response
    o Sympathetic Adrenal Medulla (SAM) response
    o Sympathetic NS activation of adrenal medulla, other organs
    o Releases NE and Epi
  • Endocrine response
    o Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis
  • Hypothalamus
    o Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
  • Anterior pituitary
    o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • Adrenal cortex
    o Glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol)
     increases blood glucose, anti-inflammatory
     negative consequences of prolonged exposure
    o Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone)
    Regulates Na (and water) retention in kidneys
72
Q

What are the Principles of Evolution?

A
  • Life forms existing in the Earth’s past differed from those living today
  • New generations of life forms inherit properties from their predecessors
  • New life forms evolved as a result of mutations, selection pressures, and geological events
  • Greater reproductive success (more offspring) for some, not others
73
Q

What are the Milestones of history of life on Earth?

A
  • Fossil
    o Fossil dating (radiometric)
  • Geological
    o Where fossils are found relative to one another (relative dating)
    o How long it takes to form layers
  • Molecular
    o Similarities between vastly different species (e.g., in neurotransmitters, receptors, metabolic pathways, etc.)
  • Genetic
    o Rates of mutation
    o Developmental patterns of gene expression
  • Anatomical
74
Q

How do nervous systems differ?

A
  • Body symmetry
    o radial
    o bilateral
  • Segmentation
  • Centralized vs. distributed function
  • Cephalization: sense organs & nervous system concentrated in anterior
  • Encasement in bone (vertebrates)
75
Q

How are nervous systems similar?

A
  • Similarities in patterns of early nervous system development
    o across vastly different species
    o with very distant (in time) common ancestors
    o limited number of ways to build nervous systems that successfully regulate behavior
  • Vertebrates have similar brain plans
  • Species differ in relative size of parts
  • Brain sizes scale with body size
    Brain size scales with body size (more or less)
  • Mammals and birds have big brains
  • Some animals have big brains for their bodies
    o Humans
    o Crows
    o Porpoises
  • Bigger than expect brains (relative to average) = high ‘encephalization factor’
  • Brain size scales with body size (more or less)
  • Mammals and birds have big brains
  • Some animals have big brains for their bodies
    o Humans
    o Crows
    o Porpoises
  • Bigger than expect brains (relative to average) = high ‘encephalization factor’
  • But in primates, including humans
    o Olfactory bulbs small
    o Cerebellum comparable to other mammals
76
Q

What is the Ionotropic receptor of Glutamate?

A

AMPA, permeable to Na+, K+

77
Q

What is the metabotropic receptor of Glutamate?

A

NMDA, permeable to Ca++