Exam #2 Flashcards
reasonings relationship to memory?
categorical thinking - exemplar, heuristics, bias
problem solving - creativity, insight
episodic knowledge?
categories
- abtraction
- template: exemplars
- perceptual tuning
- prototype: weighted thinking
- holistic integration of features
perceptual tuning?
sensitivity to select features
semantic knowledge
a mental representation
- idea or meaning
- feature comparison model
- defining features: necessary for the meaning of the item
- characteristic features: descriptive but not essential
- a typicality effect: changes in discrimination time based on likelihood of features
semantic networks?
hierarchial model
- association between:
semantic networks?
hierarchial model
- association between:
- concepts: integration
- properties: traits
= dependent on context
reasoning: heuristics and algorithms
heuristics
- develop solution
- quick; error-prone
- superficial (perceptual)
algorithms
- apply rules
- slow; accurate
- logical (cognitive)
reasoning: availability, probability, representativeness
availability
- easily remembered is more probable
probability
- reliant on knowledge of parameters/ likelihood
representativeness
- similarity with other instances
problem solving: creatvity
the ability to transfer knowldge, the abilityt to produce new ideas
- insight: a sudden realization of a problem’s solution
- mental sets vs. flat hierarchies
- remote assocaitions (categories)
- expertise
- accumulated knowledfe (info & chunking)
problem finding
the ability to discover new problems,
their methods and solutions
How is Thinking related to Language?
Expressive Language
- Pictorial thinking
Receptive Language
- Inferential thinking
language and communication?
Disorders
Acquisition
language? (mental representation)
arbitrary: symbolically transformed
dynamic: include/create concepts
communicative: convey to anotehr entity
structured: systematic rules
generative: combination is malleable/ creative
universal grammer? (symbolic representation)
deep structure: semantics, meaning
surface strcuture: how its communicated, syntax
grammar: rules that allow us to communciate
linguistics
how we communicate thoughts/ideas
limitation: are these two actually related?
linguistic determinism?
“Language determines the way we think”
- sensation
- Conceptualization: organization of incoming stimuli
- attention
- perception
- Categorical thinking: Similarity/differences
- naming
how does language emerge from semantic networks?
Relies on learning & memory
Related to creativity/insight (problem
expressive language?
production
- Communication of affect
- Expressive (states)
- Communication of ideas
- Referential (abstract)
what does expressive language depend on?
referential skills and fine motor, motivation, pragmatics
receptive language?
comprehension
- developed before production
what is comprehension reliant on?
Attention/Memory
Non verbal symbols
body language
- (Gestures, facial
expression)
Reciprocity
developmental perspectives: poverty of the stimulus, and linguistic nativism
the poverty of the stimulus: the number of exemplars
provided do not allow for the construction of rules
linguistic nativism: predisposition for the acquisition
of language
debate on the poverty of the stimulus?
1)Underlying structure is similar; exemplars can be
categorized
2) Errors in grammar are present and are corrected
3) Dev. trajectory is step wise and gradually becomes more complex
brocas aphasia
expressive
- inability to produce communicative output
- production deficit, comprehension intact
- left frontal lobe
Wernicke’s aphasia
receptive fluent
- grammatical, meaningless output
- comprehension deficit, irregular production
- temporoparietal junction
personality?
Individual’s unique constellation of consistent
behavioural traits
issues with personality: differentiating between…
Short vs. long-term responses
Situational vs. magnitude descriptions
Cultural (social) vs. individual influence
also doesn’t show the values when looking at cognition (how one thinks) and the affects (tone of behaviour)
nature?
psychodynamic: Unconscious parts of self
traits: enduring patterns of behavior
- Biological: Body (and substrates) shape our experience and interpretation
nurture?
humanistic: motivation/ wants (self-actualization)
social-cognitive influences
- learning
interpersonal?
self-esteem: self-serving bias
- nature vs nurture
operationalizations: psychodynamic approaches
Change as a function of conflict
- across development/ lifespan
- discrepancy between needs/ wants and environment
Inner forces are Dynamic : changing and interacting
- Conscious (engaging) and Unconscious (engrained)
- Personality emerges from the negotiation of needs
- internalized behaviours shape future interactions
psychoanalysis: levels of consciousness
Conscious : focus attention and remember clearly
Preconscious: “dynamic unconscious” vague, sometimes realized sometimes not
– Parapraxes (“slip of the tongue”)
– Sublimation (repress)
Unconscious : Drives behaviour based on pleasure principle
– Eros/Thanatos, Biological/Moral
dialetic tensions?
Id : impulses to maintain and reproduce
– Pleasure principle: derive pleasure, avoid pain
Ego : mediator between demands of ID and Super Ego
– Reality principle: maximize rewards while avoiding censure
Super Ego : Internalization of social norm
–Morality principle: Ego ideal, conscience and guilt
defense mechanisms: repression
regression
reaction formation
projection
rationalization
displacement
denial
regression
retreat to an earlier (more infantile)
psychosexual stage
reaction formation
unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses to opposite, acceptable impulses
projection
disguise their own threatening impulses
by attributing them to others
rationalization
self justification in place of real,
threatening, unconscious reasons
displacement
shifts impulses toward acceptable, less
threatening object/person
denial
refusal to believe or perceive of painful
realities
psychoanalysis: methodological problems
1)Lack of scientific testability
–Operationalization of concepts too vague
–Operationalization impossible for ”principles”
2)Lack of empirical evidence
–Based on small groups of female patients & self analysis
- Generalizability, validity
–Non objective data collection (analyst’s interpretation)
3)Not a unifying principle
–Emphasis of male prototype
–No replication across cultures
conflict theories
generally accepted:
- Personality comprised of Id, Ego, Super Ego
- Importance of Unconscious and childhood experiences in forming personality
- Role of defense mechanisms in reducing anxiety
differentiated
- Emphasis on conscious mind’s influence on interpreting
experience and coping
- Doubted sex & aggression as only/all consuming motives
- The effect of social (not sexual) tensions
projective tests
ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger
projections (sub conscious)
types of projective tests
Rorschach Test (inkblots)
Thematic Appreciation Test (situations and concepts)
Washington University Sentence Completion Test (associations)
strengths and limitations of projective tests
strength:
- Provide rich data
- Generates discussion (discourse)
limitation:
- Complicated coding systems (prone to error)
- Long to administer
- Low reliability (trained raters come with different interpretations)
- Low validity (misdiagnosis of healthy individuals)
analytical psychology: dialectic (balance of opposites)
Self as a union of opposites:
- Thinking vs Feeling, Sensation vs Intuition
persona
the “mask” (role) you are in (social)
anima/ us
your potential to become
shadow
aspects that were denied (moral)
ego
thoughts, feelings, memories (experience)
collective unconscious
Collective Unconscious: Common psychic background
of humanity
- concepts/ archetypes emerge from culture
person situation debate? how does personality, behaviour, and situation interact?
Personality predicts likelihood of response
Situations constrain behaviour
- personalities determine their environment
traits: functions/ productions of the CNS - reactivity to stimulation
Extraversion/Introversion : reflect behaviours
Stability/Neuroticism : reflect emotions
- the lemon test
- introverts produce more saliva (sensitive to stimulating drugs), extroverts less saliva (sensitive o depressive drugs)
traits: functions/ productions of the CNS - sociability
psychoticism/ normality: reflect adherence to social norm
- testosterone
factor models
Mathematical algorithms that attempt to extract
commonality from items
- Reduce variability in clusters, increase variability across Factors
- done to be more parsimonious
the big 5
OCEAN
openness: imagination, feelings, actions, ideas
conscientiousness: competence, self-discipline, goal-driven
extroversion: sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression
agreeableness: cooperative, trustworthy, good-natured
neuroticism: tendency toward unstable emotions
low/ high score Openness
low - uncreative, incurious, practical
high - curious, wide range of interests, independent
low/ high score conscientiousness
low - impuslive,careless, disorganizaed
high- hardworking, depenable,organized
low/ high extroversion
low- quiet, reserved, withdrawn
high - outgoing, warm, seeks adventure
low/ high agreeableness
low - critical, uncooperative, sus
high - hepful, trusting, empathetic
low/ high neuroticism
low- calm, even-tempered, secure
high- anxious, unhappy, prone to negative emotions
social cognitive perspective
Personality is an illusion, environments shape
behavior
situationism
circumstances are more determinant of our
behaviour
reciprocal determinism
bi-directional influence
- no primary cause for our behaviour
personality is determined by the interaction of the external environment, internal mental events, and behaviour. For example, receiving good grades and praise for schoolwork as a child may help you believe that you are a good student and this high level of self-efficacy may further lead to behaviours (studying and doing homework) that produce further desired reinforcement—more good grades and praise.
self-efficacy
personal beliefs about one’s ability to perform
at a certain level
- how we think about ourselves and our social situations
measuring intelligence?
psychometric approach
How do we define intelligence?
operationalization
histology
kinds of psychometrics we use?
“g”
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
WAIS
limitations of psychometrics?
nature and nurture
defining intelligence?
“ability to learn (from experience )”, “think
abstractly ” “carry out a plan” “creative solutions to
novel situations
limitations - intelligence?
Most rely on situational descriptions , or abstract concepts
Testing paradigms generally do not match conceptual
definition
- Predetermined responses, pattern recognition, memory
Treated as a stable trait, but tests are constantly altered
- Paradox: Intelligence is stable, but people are getting smarter?
hereditary genius: “innate” tendencies in talented families
No relationship to environment
physiological measurements of discrimination
Eugenics, origin of genetic approach
survival of the fittest
“fit” referred to physiology (NOT relationship to environment)
- reinforced racist/ sexist concepts of intelligence
learning potential: create an assessment of school success
Valid measure
–Mental Age : operationalization of reasoning, comprehension,and judgment
First standardized approach
–Comparison to achievement group
Functional measures
–Aptitude Test : probability of achievement given a specific operationalized goal; competency.
- Predictive
- Achievement Test : measuring success of learning on a specific task; ability.
- Assessment
- tests of knowledge about particular school subjects
stanford-binet
revised Binet’s test to measure “inherited intelligence”
*extended to adults
- Repurposing a test for a different goal (see validity)
intelligence quotient (IQ)
mathematically standardized descriptor
- allow for comparison across groups
standardization
Uniform procedure of giving and scoring tests
- Assumption
- the only difference remaining is that of ability
- traits are normally distributed in the population
- norming thus allows for comparison in sub-populations
reliability
The extent with which a test gives consistent results
- Split half tests, test retest
- Issues: item selection, learning
validity
The extent to which a test measures what it’s
supposed to:
content validity: refers to criterion (the construct you are
interested in)
- Achievement tests
predictive validity: refers to future behaviour (success)
- Aptitude Tests
cautions of validity
Correlation is not causation
restricted ranges
assumes stability
subjective operationalizations
general intelligence (g): connectionist
connectionist (one factor)
- high inter correlation across abilities
- Problem: ecological validity
- human abilities too diverse to collapse to one score
confounds to general intelligence
Socioeconomic Status (SES) was the best predictor
operationalization of cognitive abilities
verbal, mathematical, memory, spatial, sensory)
general intelligence (g): modular
modular (several factors)
- several separate clusters
- Problem: mathematical validity
- clusters gravitated around a single factor
general intelligence (g): multiple intelligences
multiple intelligences (several factors)
- includes abilities beyond academics
- Problem:
- Ecological validity (focus on
- Not validated/verified by research ( learning is standard)
- Fluid or crystalized?
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
- Analytic : mental components used in solving a
problem- well-defined problems with one conclusive answer
- Academic settings, logic (mathematic deductions)
- Creative: the ability to transfer knowledge
- Manipulate information in unique/novel situations
- Practical : ability to make use of contextual
information
- Everyday tasks that have multiple solutions- environment, experience, common sense
tacit knowledge
Tacit Knowledge: inferred strategies for “success”
– interpersonal strategies to work with others
- Limitation: related to school-related cognitive functions such as reading, writing, test taking, homework completion
Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)
Targets cognitive processes, assesses based on quality of answer (not specified answer!)
Reasoning abstraction
Vocabulary naming & defining
Spatial ability block design/replication
Pattern recognition letter/number sequence
What does WAIS do?
1.Clinical tool used for diagnostics
–Measure of impairment
“intelligence” means “cognitive” not “
2.Point scale
–Sensitive to individual differences in task performance
compiling sub tasks allow for more accurate representation
More informative than “pass/fail”
3.Non verbal performance
–Overcome cultural, linguistic, and education biases
Tapped into higher order cognitive abilities such as attention,problem solving, etc
nature (genetic): longitudinal, twin, adoption
longitudinal studies:
- Stability: neural speed, orienting to novel stimuli, SAT/GRE
- Difference: “personality” (B5), fluid intelligence
twin studies:
- Identical reared apart (0.76) vs. Siblings reared apart
- Problem: Environmental similarity never accounted for
adoption:
- Intelligence: more variability than adoptive parents in
adulthood, but higher then biological parents
- cohort effect
limitations of heritability
Proportion of genetic variability responsible for trait
variance
1) Descriptive (not causal)
2) Refers to groups (populations) not individuals
- Averages not individual differences
3) relates to environment
- Problem: error in how environment is factored in!
- research treats the environment as a confound and controls for it (removes it) → Phenotype has been constrained
4) Assumes traits are static/stable
- Misconception of what is a “trait”
nurture limitations: flynn, impoverished, testing procedures, cultural
The Flynn effect : IQ rates increase, related to
industrial “development”
Impoverished family
- Each SES factor decreased IQ by 4 points, additively.
testing procedures
- motivation, timing
cultural
- Growth Mindset : Failure is not a permanent condition
- Grit : Maintaining effort despite plateaus or failures
genetic: age, culture, measures
age: Increases in “drift”:
modification that occurs as a
result of methylation
(“turning off”)
culture: Homogenous, post
industrialized society
(western)
measures: phenotype
measured
behaviourally
environmental: age, culture, measures
age: control increases with age
culture: “one
size fits all” fallacy,
The Flynn Effect
measures: factors are determined by
culture
concepts are…
representational
categories are determined by
experience with exemplars
Which of the following represents the super-ordinate level category?
grizzley
mammal
brown
bear
mammal
Thor overestimates the proportion of family chores which he takes responsibility for because it’s easier for him to recall what he has done than to recall what Loki has done. This best illustrates the impact of…
the availability heuristic
The representativeness heuristics is most related to…
prototypes
when babies learn their first words, they are learning…
semantics
is Grammar acquired through a critical period.
true
brocas aphasia is a disorder of…
grammar
receptive language relates to…
pragmatics
language development is dependent on…
communciation
According to Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence, what would be affected by learning?
s factor
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences takes into account cultural factors.
yes
Which of the following represents validity?
A test that measures something that is related to the construct.
If a distribution is “normal” it means that…
the measures show the highest frequency around an average number.
a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which most scores are in the middle, with smaller groups of equal size at either end.
Emotional intelligence would most related to…
social intelligence as it also involves interpersonal skill
The Flynn effect can be best explained by…
learning
According to Sternberg’s triarchic theory, which of the following is demonstrating wisdom?
do no harm
Heritability estimates may be confounded because…
they are too high when environment is kept static.
Which of the following is NOT a confound in measuring intelligence?
genes
personality traits are _____ and can be _____.
stable; a spectrum
According to Freud, anxiety results from the…
super-ego
Projective tests would be best associated with the…
unconscious
The person-situation debate provides evidence for situationism.
true
Gender may best relate to which of Eysenck’s superfactors?
extroversion/ introversion
One caveat to describing personality as a function of biology is…
the bi-directional impact of environment and biology.
Evidence from cultural and cross-cultural studies imply that personality is static.
false
language comprehension?
the process of understanding spoken, written, or signed language.
four areas study of speech can be divided into?
phonology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics
phoneme?
the smallest unit of sound in a language; an individual sound such as ba, da, or ta.
phonology
the study of how individual sounds or phonemes are used to produce language.
morpheme
the smallest units of a language that convey meaning.
For example, the word jumped has two morphemes. One is jump and the other is ed (the ed morpheme changes the meaning, indicating that the jumping has already taken place).
semantics
the study of how meaning in language is constructed of individual words and sentences
For example, if we say that it is “raining cats and dogs,” you do not look outside and expect to see animals falling from the sky.
syntax
the system for using words (semantics) and word order to convey meaning (grammar).
“She wore a beautiful blue dress,” or, “He’s feeling blue today,” the distinction becomes instantly clear. The way in which words are constructed into sentences
pragmatics
the practical aspects of language usage, including speech pace, gesturing, and body language.
Communication also requires adhering to social norms, such as speed of speech, responding at appropriate intervals, making eye contact, and using acceptable body language. These aspects of communication are called pragmatics, because they refer to the practical use of language.
prevocal learning?
Between 2 and 4 months of age, babies (with normal hearing) are capable of perceiving the phonemes of every language, including those that are not needed for the language(s) they will ultimately learn (Horst & von Koss Torkildsen, 2019). During this time, babies have a remarkable ability to distinguish among these sounds.
cooing
By about 2 months of age, babies begin to make a non-crying vocalization that consists largely of vowel-like sounds (e.g., o-o-o-o-u-u-u)
babbling
By about 6 months, babies start to babble
refers to the production of meaningless speech sounds either repetitively (e.g., da-da-da-da-da) or in a more mixed manner (e.g., pa-da-ca-ca-mi-den-bo).
first words
By about 1 year, speaking begins, typically in the form of very simple words, such as mama, dada, or hi
At this early stage, the baby’s ability to comprehend is much greater than the ability to speak (see Figure 9.2). At about 1 year of age, the average baby can understand approximately 50 words, but he will not be able to speak that many words until about months later
telegraphic speech
By age 2, toddlers in most language communities speak in very short (typically two-word) sentences. This is called telegraphic speech because, as in old-fashioned telegraph messages (for which senders were charged by the word), all but the essential words are omitted. Instead of saying, “I want a cookie,” a 2-year-old is more likely to simply say, “Want cookie.”
pragmatics?
By 3 years of age, the average toddler has naturally acquired some practical information about language use, including the need to pause between sentences and the knowledge that certain sentences are statements, whereas others are requests
grammar
By age 4, children have automatically absorbed many of the rules of grammar, even though they have received no formal education about the grammar of their native languages
critical period
a window of time in development during which certain influences are necessary for appropriate formation of the brain.
sensitive period
a developmental time during which the brain is more susceptible to influences. After the sensitive period, change can still occur, but it doesn’t happen as readily
child-directed speech
speech characterized by exaggerated emotional responses and a slower pace that is cross-culturally common among caregivers communicating with babies and young children.
is grammar affected by the environment?
We can see the effects of environment when children begin formal education. Children typically acquire a large vocabulary and the ability to form grammatically-correct sentences by about age 4, generally before they receive formal training in grammar (Tomasello, 2014; Justice et al., 2018). Once grammatical rules are consciously learned, however, children become more prone to errors. For example, once children learn that the suffix -ed refers to the past tense, they apply -ed to verbs that are irregular. A child who previously used the past tense of “think” correctly as “thought” may begin to say “thinked.” Such mistakes are referred to as overregularization
agrammatism
a neurological condition arising from damage to a brain region just anterior to Broca’s area, where the patient is incapable of using words in grammatical sequence.
wernicke’s area
a brain region located in the temporal lobe that is important for language comprehension.
Wernicke’s aphasia
a neurological condition associated with damage to Wernicke’s area where a person cannot understand language.
gender differences in speech comprehension?
there is a notable difference in language comprehension between girls and boys. Girls comprehend language at a faster rate, but this gender gap disappears by about age 2.
Girls tend to outpace boys in language skills during elementary school.
immigrants’ english proficiency by age of arrival
Immigrants’ mastery of English depends on when they begin the learning process. The proficiency of those adults who started learning their new language before age 7 is comparable to that of native speakers. However, the proficiency of those who started acquiring the language in young adulthood is much poorer.
does language play a role in thinking?
can be observed with spatial navigation thinking (see Psychology Around Us 9.1). Although some people use narrative to remember directions, such as, “Turn right at the second light on Main Street,” in many cases, spatial thinking occurs in the form of visual imagery. This kind of directional skill—knowing that a certain direction is north, for example—is not language driven.
Our ability to use imagery to solve problems is often based closely on our spatial memories. Studies have shown that we appear to search our actual relevant memories to solve tasks requiring mental imagery. For example, if researchers give participants photos of rooms that are long and narrow with regularly-spaced objects in them, and later ask the participants to describe the objects located in those rooms, the participants do so with a greater lag time between objects than if asked to carry out a similar task after looking at a photo of a smaller room
linguistic relativity hypothesis
hypothesis suggesting that the vocabulary available for objects or concepts in a language influences how speakers of that language think about them.
controlled processing?
is effortful and relies on a limited-capacity system
Most of us cannot carry on a conversation while conducting multi-digit mental arithmetic; we must direct our thoughts toward the math problem. Driving performance suffers more if the cell conversation one is having (even using a hands-free system) is intense or complicated and thus more demanding of cognitive attention
automatic processing?
automatic processing seems effortless. Automatic processing is not usually disrupted very much if we are distracted by other tasks. Experienced drivers can carry on a conversation with a passenger while driving a car, for example. However, automatic processing, such as driving, can be severely disrupted by simultaneously engaging in a task that requires more attention than speaking, such as reading or sending a text message
cognitive control examples?
the ability to direct thought in accord with one’s intentions.
the ability to direct attention to a specific stimulus within other competing, and perhaps stronger, stimuli, such as finding the face you are looking for within a crowd
maintaining a new piece of information in mind despite distraction, such as remembering a telephone number until you dial while on your cellphone in a crowded mall
overcoming a compelling behaviour, such as not scratching a very itchy mosquito bite
pursuing a complex but unfamiliar behaviour, such as learning the moves of a new sport or how to work the controls of a new videogame
responding flexibly and productively in new situations, such as playing a complex videogame that requires anticipating future consequences
executive functioning
the brain’s ability to control and manage the mental processing of information.
dysexecutive syndrome
impairments in the ability to control and direct mental activities.
well-defined problems and ill-defined problems
Researchers refer to problems with easy-to-discern beginning and end states, such as arithmetic, as well-defined problems. We often find it fairly easy to find a strategy for solving well-defined problems because we can easily define what outcome we want from the start
ill-defined problems, such as how to deal with a messy roommate. Our goal in this case might be difficult to define in precise terms. We may want to stop doing what we feel is an unfair share of housecleaning, but how will we know when we have reached that goal?
algorithm and heuristic
a problem-solving strategy that always leads to a solution.
a shortcut thinking strategy
heuristic strategy: working backwards
s helpful for problems with well-defined goals. Starting from your goal, you think backwards, imagining a series of steps it would take you to move backwards from your goal to your current state. Once you have determined the steps between your current state and the goal, you can actually follow them in a forward order.
heuristic strategy: forming subgoals
involves dividing a larger problem into smaller ones. If your ultimate goal is to find out if a professor will be a good teacher for you, you may form subgoals, such as asking three former students about the professor and arranging to sit in on a lecture.
heuristic strategy: searching for analogies
involves recalling similar problems that you have encountered
functional fixedness?
tendency to view objects as having only one function.
confirmation bias?
tendency to look for information that meets our expectations.
representativeness heuristic
the assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category of which they are a member.
When we use this heuristic, we draw conclusions about an object, event, or person based on a small set of specific data, often ignoring other relevant information. Suppose, for example, that one of the movies you are thinking of seeing has several characteristics that seem to identify it as a romantic comedy. You may not bother to read reviews or get other information about the movie because, based only on its presumed identity as a romantic comedy, you have a set of expectations about what the movie will be like.
availability heuristic?
judging easily-recalled events as more common.
The availability heuristic also explains why we tend to think that infrequent but highly salient and memorable events, such as plane crashes or tsunamis, are more common than they actually are
bounded rationality
the fact that in many situations, our ability to make clear rational decisions is limited or “bounded” by things like a lack of information, time constraints, or emotions attached to aspects of the problem we are trying to solve.
metacognition and example?
thinking about one’s own thoughts.
Self-reflection is another form of metacognition. It involves thinking about our own identities, how we influence other people, and our relative self-worth. Self-reflection is an important human behaviour because it enables us to evaluate and modify our responses based on our past experience.
theory of mind
an awareness of one’s own mental states and the mental states of others.
Another type of metacognition occurs when we infer what someone else is thinking by watching or hearing about that person’s actions
OCD
a mental disorder associated with abnormal anxiety-provoking thoughts that can lead to ritualistic behaviours.
Schizophrenia?
a mental disorder characterized by disorganized thoughts, lack of contact with reality, and sometimes auditory hallucinations.
Sometimes a person’s speech and writing become entirely disorganized and out of touch with reality (Sarioglu et al., 2018). However, in spite of the nonsensical content, many people diagnosed with schizophrenia are able to retain intact semantics and syntax in sentence construction
where are the main language centers in the brain?
speech production area?
language comprehension area?
in the left hemisphere. The main brain region important for speech production is Broca’s area. The main region for language comprehension is called Wernicke’s area.
factor analysis
a statistical method for determining whether certain items on a test correlate highly, thus forming a unified set, or cluster, of items.
g factor
a theoretical general factor of intelligence underlying all distinct clusters of mental ability; part of Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence.
s factor
a theoretical specific factor uniquely tied to a distinct mental ability or area of functioning; part of Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence.
thurstones 7 factors of intellgence? aka primary mental abilities
verbal comprehension: vocab, reading, comprehension, verbal analogies, etc.
word fluency: the ability to quickly generate and manipulate a large number of words with specific characteristics, as in anagrams or rhyming tests
numerical skill: The ability to quickly and accurately carry out mathematical operations
spatial ability: Skill in spatial visualization as well as the ability to mentally transform spatial figures
associative memory: rote memory
perceptual speed: Quickness in perceiving visual details, anomalies, similarities, etc.
reasoning: Skill in a variety of inductive, deductive, and arithmetic reasoning tasks
theory of multiple intelligences?
theory that there is no single, unified intelligence, but instead several independent intelligences arising from different portions of the brain.
gardner’s multiple intelligences
linguistic
logical/ mathematical
musical
spatial
bodily/ kinesthetic
interpersonal
intrapersonal
naturalistic
existentialist
triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg’s theory that intelligence is made up of three interacting components: internal, external, and experiential components.
internal (analytic)
This component of intelligence relates to the internal processing of information: acquiring information; planning, monitoring, and evaluating problems; or carrying out directions. The internal aspect of intelligence is the one most often measured by today’s intelligence tests—the sort of intelligence needed for straightforward tasks and problems that we confront at school or work or in life.
external (creative)
Sternberg notes that some tasks are novel and so require a special way of thinking. Travelling to Cambodia for the first time, for example, requires more creative thinking than walking down a local street in your hometown. Among other things, travellers would have to figure out how to get through Cambodian customs, find their way to a hotel, and order meals in restaurants—all, perhaps, without knowing the language. This component of intelligence clearly requires creativity, and it also must interact with the internal component of intelligence to bring about successful results.
experiential (practical)
This type of thinking helps us adapt to or improve our environments or select new environments. Let’s say you move into a new home and find that the neighbours make a lot of noise when you are trying to go to sleep. At first, you might try to solve the problem by moving to another bedroom in the house (adapting to the environment). If this doesn’t work, you might try installing soundproof windows or complaining to the neighbours or to the landlord (changing the environment). And, finally, if that doesn’t work, you might decide to move to another house (selecting a new environment)
bioecological model of intelligence
proposes that intelligence is the product of interaction among biological, environmental, and motivational resources, and that each resource is responsible for a different aspect of intelligence.
Ceci’s theory that intelligence is a function of the interactions among innate potential abilities, environmental context, and internal motivation.
psychometric approach?
an approach to defining intelligence that attempts to measure intelligence with carefully constructed psychological tests.
measured by intelligence tests
validity coefficient
a correlation coefficient that measures validity by correlating a test score with some external criterion.
predictive validity
the extent to which scores on a particular test successfully predict future performance on a measure related to the test.
theory of psychophysical performance
held that people with more energy can perform more work and, in turn, develop greater intelligence. In addition, individuals who have more highly developed senses can take in more information
WAIS subtests?
verbal comprehension
working memory
perceptual reasoning
processing speed
stereotype vulnerability or threat
a phenomenon in which people in a particular group perform poorly because they fear that their performance will conform to a negative stereotype associated with that group.
flynn effect
an observed rise in average IQ scores throughout the world over time.
Intelligence test scores from around the world have increased over time, a phenomenon known as the Flynn effect. Possible explanations include potential problems with the procedures, content, or nature of the tests and improvements in education, nutrition, health, or environments.
emotional intelligence
an individual’s ability to perceive, express, assimilate, and regulate emotion.
wisdom
the ability to make sound judgments about important, difficult, or uncertain situations and to choose the best course of action
creativity
the ability to produce ideas that are both original and valuable.
bell curve controversy
Conventional IQ tests accurately measure intelligence.
IQ is an important predictor of many measures of success in life, including success at school, work, parenting, and income. Higher IQ also predicts the avoidance of welfare dependence and criminality.
Given such correlations (which do not equal causation), people who are high in intelligence form a cognitive elite—they reach the upper levels of society—whereas those with lower IQs fall toward the bottom.
Given their predictive powers, intelligence tests can and should be used as a gating mechanism, to allow those with high IQs access to opportunities.
IQ is largely heritable, passed on through the genes from one generation to the next.
There are clear racial and ethnic differences in intelligence.
It is likely, although not certain, that at least some of this difference between groups is due to genetic factors.
heritability coefficient
a correlation coefficient used to indicate the contribution of heredity to some characteristic, such as intelligence.
five factors at the root of intelligence:
(1) a general cognitive factor;
(2) interpersonal intelligence (knowing about others); (3) intrapersonal intelligence (knowing about oneself); (4) intellectual self-assertion (advocating for your own intellectual achievements); and
(5) intellectual self-effacement (being humble about your intellectual achievements)
Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Family and Home Environment
Cultural Influences
Occupational Influences
School Influences
two kinds of variation?
Environment contributes to variation between the groups
An average variation between groups cannot be applied to individuals within each group.
analyze the bioelectrical activity of the brain?
electroencephalogram (EEG)
nerve conduction velocity (NCV)
the speed with which electrical impulses are transmitted along nerve fibres and across synapses.
neural efficiency hypothesis
the hypothesis that bright individuals show lower brain activity than less bright individuals during tests of low to moderate cognitive difficulty.
brain entropy
the number of neural states, or neural configurations, a brain can access during a task.
intellectual disability
term describing individuals who display general intellectual functioning that is well below average and, at the same time, poor adaptive behaviour.
common characteristics among gifted people:
Environment can contribute to giftedness.
Gifted people are often intrinsically motivated.
Some people gifted in academic or other forms of intelligence may not be equally gifted with social and emotional intelligence.
To ensure that intelligence tests are grounded in sound scientific principles, psychologists design tests that adhere to three basic criteria:
reliability
validity
standardization
crit. of an inteligence test
One issue involves the culture-specific nature of the tests, which may produce bias. A related problem is stereotype threat.
hereditary role in intelligence?
Family studies and research in molecular biology have indicated that heredity does play a major role in intelligence. Researchers estimate that the heritability of intelligence is about 50 percent.
environmental factors that affect intelligence?
Environmental factors that affect intelligence include family and home, overall culture, occupation, and schooling.
brain and intelligence?
Neuroimaging studies suggest that overall brain size is not correlated with intelligence. The number of neurons in certain brain regions, such as the frontal lobes, may be related to intellectual functioning.
four distinct personality types:
sanguine (into good times),
phlegmatic (calm and wise),
melancholic (withdrawn and darkly moody), and choleric (quick to anger and fight).
preconscious
which contains thoughts, memories, and ideas that can be easily brought into the conscious mind if attended to.
neurosis
an abnormal behaviour pattern caused by unresolved conflicts between the id, ego, and superego.
defence mechanisms
unconscious tactics employed by the ego to protect the individual from anxiety.
psychosexual stages ?
oral
- weaning; Dependency on pleasures of the mouth; also general dependence on mother
anal
- toilet training; Excessive neatness, orderliness, stubbornness, stingy, controlling
phallic
- Attraction to opposite-sex parent; Sexual role rigidity or confusion
latency
- Repression of sexual impulses, identification with same-sex parent; No fixations for this stage
genital
- Establishing mature sexual relations and emotional intimacy; Sexual dysfunction and unsatisfactory relationships
common defense mechanisms
repression: Establishing mature sexual relations and emotional intimacy Sexual dysfunction and unsatisfactory relationships
denial
rationalization: Creating a socially acceptable excuse to justify unacceptable behaviour
reaction formation: Not acknowledging unacceptable impulses and over-emphasizing their opposite
projection
displacement
sublimation: Channelling socially unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities
regression: Reverting to immature ways of responding
identification
intellectualization: Ignoring troubling emotional aspects by focusing on abstract ideas or thoughts
two parts of the unconscious?
personal unconscious, formed from individual experiences, is similar to the unconscious as seen by Freud.
The collective unconscious, however, is not a private entity like the personal unconscious. Instead, it is a cumulative storehouse of inherited memories shared by all humankind. Jung called these shared memories archetypes. According to Jung, archetypes are reflected in symbols and images that appear in the art, literature, and religions of all cultures.
basic anxiety
which develops in children who experience extreme feelings of isolation and helplessness.
self-actualization
the need of humans to fulfill their full and special potential; the highest level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
positive psychology
an area of psychology focusing on positive experiences and healthy mental functioning.
self-concept
a pattern of self-perception that remains consistent over time and can be used to characterize an individual.
unconditional positive regard
acceptance without terms or conditions.
crits of humanistic theories
critics fault the humanistic theories for their overly positive focus, saying that they are simplistic and that they ignore the role of psychological dysfunction in society. In addition, it has been difficult for researchers to conduct controlled studies on such abstract concepts as self-actualization and unconditional positive regard
personality traits
tendencies to behave in certain ways that remain relatively constant across situations.
personality trait model
a mini-theory about the structure of personality traits.
lexical hypothesis
the idea that our language contains the important ways in which people can differ.
superfactors?
extroversion (sociable), neuroticism (worried), and psychoticism (nasty)
interpersonal circle
a two-dimensional personality trait model based on blends of dominance and nurturance.
interpersonal traits can be generated by the two primary dimensions
nurturance
dominance
A third question is whether traits and the behaviours they dictate, are stable over time.
Studies indicate that personality traits are more stable over a short period of time than over a span of years. People who conscientiously show up on time for an appointment today are likely to be punctual for appointments next week and next month. But today’s punctuality is not as likely to predict punctuality a year or two from now.
personality inventory
a questionnaire designed to assess various aspects of personality.
traits of the five-factor model
openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
popular personality inventory for the general public is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
based on Jung’s writings about personality and is typically used by businesses to understand personality dynamics in workplace settings. The MBTI is used as a catalyst to get people within organizational teams and groups talking about their social interactions, but it lacks the validity required of inventories used to make hiring and promotion decisions
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2
A person’s responses on this test are used primarily to assess psychological disorders. The items on this test were selected much differently than the other tests we mentioned. They were not selected according to any theory or model. MMPI items were empirically derived
socially desirable responding
tailoring answers on personality inventories to try to create a good impression.
projective tests
a personality assessment device intended to tap a person’s unconscious by presenting the person with an ambiguous stimulus and asking the person to interpret what the stimulus means.
situationism
a view of personality, which notes that in many social situations people respond is similar ways, meaning that the situation drives their response rather than their personality.
interactionism
focuses on interactions between people and situations. At the centre of the interactionist model is the idea that people influence the situations they encounter. According to this model, the choices you make, such as attending your present college or university or being enrolled in your present classes, are functions of underlying personality traits.
phrenology
a method of assessing a person’s mental and moral qualities by studying the shape of the person’s skull.
Negative emotionality
Individuals who have high levels of negative emotionality are thought to experience more negative emotions and see the world as distressing, whereas those low on this dimension are relatively peaceful and have higher levels of satisfaction.
Positive emotionality
Measures of positive emotionality are thought to represent a person’s engagement with their environment. High scorers are social individuals who lead active lives and exhibit enthusiasm, while low scorers are shyer and have less energy and self-confidence.
Disinhibition versus constraint The disinhibition/constraint dimension
reflects how we regulate our various emotions. People high in disinhibition have difficulty controlling their emotional responses and tend to be impulsive, living for the moment. People high in constraint live more careful and controlled lives.
social role theory
girls and boys develop different personal styles, behaviours, and skills based largely on the division of labour between the sexes and the resulting differences in gender role expectations
four core features of personality disorders:
rigid, extreme, and distorted thinking patterns (thoughts);
problematic emotional response patterns (feelings);
impulse control problems (behaviour); and
significant interpersonal problems (behaviour).
borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by severe instability in emotions and self-concept and high levels of volatility.
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by extreme and callous disregard for the feelings and rights of others.
personality disorders marked by odd or eccentric behavior
paranoid
schizoid
schizotypal
personality disorders involve dramatic or emotional behavior
antisocial
broderline
histrionic
narcissistic
personality disorders characterized by high levels of fear and anxiety
avoidant
dependent
obsessive-compulsive
personality disorders characterized by high levels of fear and anxiety
avoidant
dependent
obsessive-compulsive
social cognitive theory
is an example of interactionist theory. In Bandura’s view, the environment, internal mental events, and behaviour all interact to affect behaviour through the process of reciprocal determinism.
