Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Psych - Exam 2 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

Sensation

A

the processing of basic information from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs and brain
• all signals are physical energy
• transduction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

transduction

A
  • conversion of energy

* sensory organs receiving stimulus energy from the environment, then transducing that energy into neural stimuli

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

perception

A

the organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

“bottom-up” vs “top-down”

A

sensation vs. perception

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

psychophysics

A
  • look at different influences on our ability to perceive and notice stimuli
  • study of physical characteristics of stimuli and how we perceive them
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

absolute threshold

A

minimum needed to detect on 50% of trails

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

just noticeable difference (JND)

A

the minimal change in a stimulus that can detected 50 % of the time (ex: do you notice the difference in weight)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Webers Law

A
  • the JND of a stimulus is a constant proportion regardless of the intensity of the stimulus
  • proportional inc. in stimulus for JND is the same regardless of signal intensity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Weber Fraction

A

the likelihood of perceiving a stimulus change is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

signal detection theory

A
  • stimulus present and they hit it (hit)
  • stimulus present and they miss it (miss)
  • no stimulus present and they say there’s one (false alarm)
  • no stimulus present and they say there wasn’t one (correct rejection)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

liberal bias

A

more likely to say there was a stimulus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

conservative bias

A

more likely to say no

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

adaptation

A

• stop noticing a stimulus that remains constant over time or has enhanced detection of stimulus changing
• Helps our sensory systems notice a change
>Ignores unhelpful info
>Optimize sensitivity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

visible light

A

(small) a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

3 physical properties of light

A
  1. wavelength
  2. amplitude
  3. purity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

wavelength

A
  • determines the experience of color // color we see based on the frequency
  • the distance between any two consecutive crests or troughs of a wave
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

amplitude

A
  • brightness/intensity

* height of the crests of a wave

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

purity

A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

ratio, rods to cones

A

20:1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

fovea

A

only contains cones, rods are more on the periphery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

cones vs rods

A
  • cones have more direct connections to neutral cells than rods do
  • cones have higher acuity whereas rods have higher sensitivity
  • cones receive more cortical representation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

retina

A
  • where transduction occurs
  • back of the eye
  • contains 2 kinds of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones)
  • contain photopigments that transduce light into neural impulses
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

rods

A
  • supports night vision

* higher sensitivity - able to detect stimulus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

cone

A
  • responsible for high-resolution color

* focus and define, sharp, clear image

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

accommodation

A

the process by which the lens changes in thickness & shape as it adjects to focus light
• inc. sharpness of vision

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

color vision

A

three photopigments of the cones

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

why do cones have 3 photopigments?

A
  • sensitive to different wavelengths of the visible spectrum
  • respond to different wavelengths of light, that creat neural impulse to produce color perception
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

trichromatic theory

A

3 cone photopigments work together to produce color perception

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

opponent-process theory

A
  • pairs of visual neurons that work in opposition (yin & yang of color perception)
  • information from the cones is separated into 3 sets of opposing colors
  • red = green, blue = yellow, black = white
  • when you stare at a color your cones adapt to the color and then after you stare long enough you will see an after image of the opposing color
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

depth perception

A
  • monocular cues
  • binocular cues
  • as distance is gained you see the whole image rather than the details
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

monocular cues

A

aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only ONE EYE
•texture gradient, linear perspective, interposition, relative height, relative size, relative motion

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

binocular disparity

A

the difference in the retinal images of the TWO EYES that provides information about depth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

cones —>

rods —–>

A
  • —> bipolar cells

- —> ganglion cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

entire color sectrum is percevied as

A

black

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

objects that reflect the entire color specturm are perceived as

A

white

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

monocular cues of relative size

A

• perceive depth from knowing the relative size of objects

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

relative motion

A

looking out the window: things close appear to be moving fast, where things further away appear to be moving slower

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Higher-level Vision: Object Identification and Localization

A

The brain processes and organizes the data it receives from the retina through hierarchical analysis
•Increasingly higher levels of the brain create increasingly more complete representations of what is sensed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Once the neural impulse leaves the eye where does it go?

A

Optic nerve —> crosses at optic chiasm —> lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in thalamus —> visual cortex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Thalmus

A

relay station for all senses except for olfaction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Objects in the right visual field stimulate =

A

left half of each retina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Objects in the left visual field stimulate =

A

right half of each retina

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

first stop of information coming in

A

Area V1 of visual cortex-feature detectors (piecing together what the object is)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Hubel & Wiesel experiment

A

presenting different shapes and colors, sliding glass, the edge of the glass is what triggered the neral firing, which is how they found feature detectors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Feature detectors

A
  • respond to edges, lines, and curves

* building blocks to create the perceptual experience of the object

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Primary visual cortex (where V1 is) information goes to

A

the visual association cortex

• bring the information together from lower levels to build up to the perception of the object

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Visual association cortex

A
  • regions of the brain where objects are reconstructed from feature detectors and prior knowledge
  • top-down - existing knowledge and experience
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

The “What” and “Where” Pathways in the visual Brain (as we go farther up in interpreting):

A
  • Ventral stream (“what”) - identifying objects // underside of temporal lobe // recognizing objects and faces
  • Dorsal stream (“where”) - localizing objects // on top and goes into the parietal lobe
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Damage to the ventral stream

A

we are unable to identify objects by sight (visual-form agnosia)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Damage to dorsal stream

A

difficulty with our goal-directed behavior towards objects (unable to guide reach)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Prosopagnosia (damage to ventral stream)

A

where we don’t recognize faces

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Properties of sound:

A

hearing, sound waves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Hearing

A
  • involves the detection of sound waves or changes in air pressure unfolding over time
  • auditory system detecting sound waves (changes in pressure)
  • tiny vibrations detected by the ear
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Sound waves

A

involve qualities of • FREQUENCY (pitch - high or low a sound is) - measured in Hz
• AMPLITUDE (loudness/intensity) - measured in dB
• TIMBRE = experience of sound quality or resonance (ex. Same note or frequency on different instruments)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Three parts of the ear with different functions

A

the outer ear, middle ear, inner ear

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

outer ear

A

• pinna: collects soundwaves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

middle ear

A
  • transmits the vibrations that are created by the sound waves (conduct/ pass along energy)
  • eardrum/ tympanic membrane
  • ossicles = hammer, anvil, and stirrup - connected to oval window of cochlea
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

inner ear

A

• transduction into neural impulses in COCHLEA (basilar membrane, transduction)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

cochlea

A

a fluid-filled tube in the inner ear

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Oval window responds to:

A

higher frequency sounds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Other end of cochlea responds to

A

lower frequency sounds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Basilar membrane

A

lines the cochlea where the auditory cilia (“hair cells”) are located

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

“Hair cells”

A

trigger neural impulses

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Pitch perception

A

frequency theory & place theory (needed to account for our hearing of different frequencies)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

frequency theory

A

the brain uses the frequency of auditory sensory neuron firing to indicate pitch

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

place theory

A

different pitches arise from stimulation at different places along the basilar membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

amplitude perception

A

higher-amplitude vibrations cause greater stimulation in the basilar membrane, which corresponds to us perceiving a louder sound

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

tonotopic organization

A

(primary auditory cortex) the arrangement of the auditory cortex-nearby frequencies (that are similar to each other) are processed near each other in the brain
• results in sound map

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

sound localization

A

Hearing Where: having two ears allows for comparison to localize sound (interaural timing & interaural intensity)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Interaural timing

A

when the sound reaches each ear (sound enters right ear, sound is coming from the right side)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Interaural Intensity

A

loudness of sound in each ear (sound starts on the right, sounds softer to the left ear)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Two main causes of hearing loss:

A
  1. Conductive hearing loss

2. sensorineural hearing loss

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

sensorineural hearing loss

A

Damage to any of the structures (transduction cannot occur)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

conductive hearing loss

A

vibration cannot be conducted

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

sense of smell - olfaction

A
  • chemical sense, where we absorb odor molecules

* epithelium & olfactory bulb & primary olfactory cortex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

olfactory cilia

A

trigger neural impulses, specific odor molecules bind to specific receptor proteins on hair cells (embedded in epithelium)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

epithelium

A

mucous membrane in the nasal cavity that contains the olfactory receptor neurons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

olfactory bulb

A

structure just above the nasal cavity where information is communicated to the primary olfactory cortex (glomeruli)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

glomeruli

A

a spherical cluster of neurons in the olfactory bulb, takes the information to the olfactory cortex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

primary olfactory cortex

A
  • located in the anterior temporal lobe

* rich connections to the amygdala and hippocampus link olfaction to emotion and memory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

Chapter 5

A

Consciousness, Attention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

consciousness

A
  • your moment-by-moment awareness of your internal and external world
  • “Consciousness is what makes the mind-body problem really intractable. Without consciousness, the mind-body problem would be much less interesting” - Ted Nagel
  • lets us think about past, present, future
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

Mind-body problem (Descartes)

A

how the brain as matter is related to the mind and the body (non-physical - thoughts and feelings) (material - bind, and body)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

EGG (brain activity) precedes conscious decision-EMG (motor action)

A

a supported link between brain and behavior (in contrast to dualism perspective that they are separate)
• EEG - time from when moving the finger was thought-about to when it happens
• EMG - Time muscle movement
• consciousness is the link between brain activity and the actual movement (can’t track the will)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

Two aspects of consciousness:

A
  1. Arousal

2. Awareness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

Arousal

A

a person’s level of wakefulness or alertness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

Awareness

A

consciously being able to recognize something (can be sharp when wake but fuzzy when tired)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

Problems measuring consciousness

A

can’t observe it, differences between individuals

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

Studying Consciousness - Introspection

A

the process of examining one’s own internal thoughts and feelings (observe and describe their own thoughts and feelings)
• self-report
• has limitations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

Limitations of introspection:

A
  • might not be honest
  • unable to translate their experiences into words
  • people don’t understand the conscious experience you have
  • unknown thoughts and feelings
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

Focused Awareness - Selective attention

A

focusing one’s awareness onto a particular aspect of one’s experience (spot-light: focusing on what the light is on)
• necker cube - observe it differently depending on the perspective taken - shifting mental focus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

Focused Awareness- Inattentional Blindness:

A
  • focused on one thing/task, we miss stimulus around
  • failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention
  • ex: non-focused driving - watching out for cyclists
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

Focused awareness

A

change blindness: when people fail to detect changes in a visual stimulus/visual details of a scene

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

“door” study

A

man asking for directions, as a man was giving directions a door passes through, 2nd man was replaced by someone else, and 1st man didn’t notice

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

Wandering Awareness:

A
  • mind-wandering

* automaticity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

mind-wandering

A
  • drifting awareness (drifting away from the present moment - thought stream is coming disconnects from what our senses are taking in)
  • can affect performance, escape boring situations
  • can enhance creativity, problem-solving, organize thoughts and make plans
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

Automaticity

A

the ability to perform a task without conscious awareness, attention, or to think through it (brushing teeth, driving)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

Unconscious mind

A

we can monitor, understand, and respond to various aspects of our experience without awareness (cognitive and subliminal)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

Cognitive unconscious

A

the various mental processes that support everyday functioning without conscious awareness or control
• dichotic listening task - message played only in one ear, then told to tell which message was from which each, but they don’t notice it because they weren’t told to look for it

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

Subliminal perception

A

a form of perception that occurs without conscious awareness
• people cannot consciously report having seen a stimulus, but their behavior suggests otherwise
• the arrow in the FedEx label (you don’t notice the arrow normally until told its there)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

Brain bases of consciousness

A

activation of different brain areas & default mode network

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

Activation of different brain areas

A

arousal (brain stem) vs. awareness (brain regions in frontal and parietal lobes)
• depending on the focus other brain areas can be active

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

Default mode network

A

an interconnected system of brain regions that are active when the mind is alert and aware but not focused on a particular task (restful waking state)
• creativity is maximal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
104
Q

Self-consciousness

A
  • subjective awareness of self
  • Gallup experiment-comparative studies with animals
  • is mirror self-recognition self-consciousness’ (doesn’t occur till 12-18 months of age in children)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
105
Q

mirror task

A

used to assess whether young humans become self-conscious and whether animals can reflect on themselves
• if there’s a mark on them: if they touch themselves or the mirror

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
106
Q

Animals are lacking consciousness (state of awareness)

A

they are just a reflex machine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
107
Q

Variation arousal

A

the biological rhythm - circadian rhythm & SCN

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
108
Q

Circadian rhythm

A

a regular, 24-hour pattern of bodily arousal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
109
Q

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

brain structure in the hypothalamus that helps regulate sleep and alertness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
110
Q

SCN damaged

A

not good regulation of sleep and wake cycles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
111
Q

Aschoff & Wever, 1976

A

circadian rhythms can occur without the presence of light

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
112
Q

Study sleep stages - Polysomnography

A

monitor of brainwave activity (EEG), airflow and breathing, muscle movement (EMG)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
113
Q

The stages of sleep

A
  • Distinct rhythm or patten or brain activity, about every 90 minutes
  • EGG changes in beta, alpha, theta, delta waves
  • Stages 1-4 (but 3 & 4 are combined (deep sleep- restorative)) and REM sleep
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
114
Q

stage 1

A
  • shallow sleep (easy to be woken - minimal awareness of outside world)
  • theta waves (high frequency and low amplitude)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
115
Q

stage 2

A
  • k complex waves (high amplitude, low frequency, occur periodically)
  • sleep spindles (very high freq.)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

Stage 3/4

A
  • deeper sleep: restorative sleep (first half of the night)

* delta waves (low freq. High amplitude)

117
Q

REM sleep

A

towards the end of the 90-minute cycle that occurs multiple times throughout the night
• when we dream
• high levels of neural activity across levels of the brain

118
Q

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep:

A
  • rapid eye movements
  • brain activity similar to wakefulness (similar patterns)
  • faster heart and breathing rates (highten neural activity) paradoxical
  • inability to move the skeletal muscles, and dreams (brain stem actively blocks signals to the body)
119
Q

Sleep vibrations - unihemispheric sleep

A

pattern where only half of our brain experiences slow wave sleep and the other half is awake (keep one eye open)

120
Q

Functions of sleep:

A

• lack of sleep is directly related to a decline in functioning: sleep constructs, repair, and restores
> boat immune cells, build rebuilds protein and restores glycogen
> may reset overstimulated neurons from daytime
• important in learning and memory
> sleep enhances memory consolidation by increasing hippocampus involvement

121
Q

Lack of sleep

A

decline in cognitive functioning, more depressive, less concentrated

122
Q

Dreams

A
  • sequences of images, emotions, and thoughts, sometimes vivid and storylike, that are experienced during sleep
  • burst of neural activity
123
Q

Why do we dream?

A
  • activation-synthesis hypothesis
  • REM rebound
  • problem solving
124
Q

activation-synthesis hypothesis

A
  • top down process
  • brain attempts to make sense of random neural activity
  • fMRI scans of brains during dreaming
  • recent memories
125
Q

REM rebound

A

•we need to have a certain amount of REM sleep, so when we don’t get enough the REM rebound creates more REM sleep

126
Q

problem solving

A
  • dreaming helps with problem solving

* enhanced performance after sleep

127
Q

Sleep disorders

A
  • insomnia
  • sleep apnea
  • somnambulism (sleepwalking)
  • narcolepsy
  • dream content REM behvaior disorder (RBD)
  • night terrors (sleep terrors)
128
Q

Insomnia

A
  • difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep
  • most common
  • good sleep hygiene (what you do before bed)
  • make the bedroom about sleep and relaxation
129
Q

sleep apnea

A
  • person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep
  • seconds to minutes
  • obstructive: more common - when our throat muscles relax
  • central - brain doesn’t send signals to the muscles that control breathing
130
Q

somnambulism (sleepwalking)

A
  • occurs when the person arises and walks around during sleep
  • early hours of sleep // mainly in children
  • eyes open
  • few seconds to half hour
  • not supposed to interfere to just make sure they don’t get hurt
131
Q

Narcolepsy

A
  • sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities
  • complete loss of voluntary muscle control
  • triggered by strong emotions (stress, excitement)
  • can be treated with medication but patient still groggy
132
Q

dream content REM behvaior disorder (RBD)

A
  • acting out one’s dreams

* paralysis doesn’t occur during REM as it should

133
Q

night terrors (sleep terrors)

A
  • abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal
  • over arousal of CNS
  • occurs during deep sleep (stages 3&4)
  • get them back into prone position so they can fall asleep
134
Q

sleep disorders

A

• cause variety of physical and some mental problems (depression)

135
Q

drug use:

A
  • psychoactive drugs
  • drug tolerance
  • drug withdrawal
136
Q

Psychoactive drug

A

alter consciousness and/ or behavior via neurotransmitters

137
Q

drug withdrawl

A

experience both physcial and psychological symptoms associated with stopping the use of a particular drug

138
Q

drug tolerance

A

the need for larger does of a drug over time of taking that drug to achieve the same effect on our consciousness

139
Q

Depressants

A

used for sleep disorders and anxiety - work by reducing central nervous system activity - reduce the effect of GABA
• alcohol: expectancy theory (expect that you will act less inhibited, might lead you to act less inhibited), alcohol myopia (when it affects our attention, react in simple ways or not think)

140
Q

Stimulants

A

excite CNS, highen arousal and activity
• increase in both dopamine and norepieferin
• elicit euphoria and confidence/ motivation
> via increase DA and NE

141
Q

Narcotics (opiates)

A

highly addictive

• related to/ mimmic effects of endorphins (natural occurring pain relief in our body)

142
Q

Hallucinogens

A

alter sensation and perception
• cause auditory and visual hallucinations via heightened excitation across brain areas
• similar molecular structure to serotonin

143
Q

Marijuana

A

mildly hallucinogenic
• drugs affect judgment, concentration, sensory and time perception, short-term memory, and motor skills/ coordination
• THC is the active ingredient - THC mimics endocannabinoids - bliss molecule (THC binds to ananadamine receptors)
• medicinal uses controversial - MS, chemo

144
Q

Chapter 7

A

Memory

• Just going to encode the information that we need

145
Q

What are the three stages of memory?

A
  • encoding
  • storage
  • retrieval
146
Q

Memory

A

Maintain info over a long period of time and access it anytime we need to

147
Q

Encoding

A

Transforming general experiences into a lasting memory

148
Q

Storage

A

maintaining memories over a long period of time

149
Q

Retrieval

A

bringing up those memories

150
Q

Memory is ________

A

constructive

151
Q

Misinformation effect

A

episodic memories (personal experiences (episodes) long term) decrease the accuracy of remembering an event, because of other people’s memories/perceptions of the event, incorporate other info that wasn’t a part of your memory

152
Q

False memories

A
  • gist vs. verbatim memory

* same brain structures

153
Q

Gist

A

the global sense of memory - general idea - get reconstructed each time we receive

154
Q

Verbatim memory

A

what actually happened

155
Q

Induce false memories

A

info we are told, imagining events differently?

• Hippocampus also involved with fake memories

156
Q

Visually imagery

A

made the implanting of false memories possible

157
Q

Encoding memories

A
  • shallow encoding

* deep encoding

158
Q

Shallow encoding

A
  • encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds
  • remember and identify color or font of words - superficial characteristics - occipital lobe
  • Temporal lobe - auditory
159
Q

Deep encoding

A

• encode based on connecting to past experience and meaning
• past experience or knowledge - make connections from past to new
>Prefrontal cortex: reasoning

160
Q

What are the two types of deep encoding?

A

Elaboration and semantic

161
Q

Elaboration

A

visual imagery - to support remembering = higher recall

162
Q

Semantic

A

thinking of the meaning of the word - connected meaning

163
Q

Self-referential encoding

A
  • semantic
  • making connections of learned info to relate to yourself
  • Does this describe you
164
Q

*emotions lead to more deep encoding bc

A

we are activating more parts of the brain

165
Q

*amygdala with memories

A

trauma, negative emotions

166
Q

Two aspects of memory storage

A

duration and capacity

167
Q

Duration

A

how long we remember

168
Q

capacity

A

how much we are able to store

169
Q

The multistore model of memory

A

three storage levels in memory (sensory, short-term, long-term)

170
Q

Sensory

A

as we go through info is streaming into our senses,
• Senses being stimulated by the information of the stimulus streaming around us
• Only activation of senses and then return to baseline
• Our iconic memory stores the whole grid but it disappears rapidly
• Focused attention - can remember more

171
Q

Sensory

A

storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less (iconic and echoic)

172
Q

Iconic memory

A

fast-decaying store of visual information (⅓ sec)

173
Q

Echoic memory

A

fast-decaying store of auditory information (2 - 10 sec)

174
Q

Short term memory (STM) or working memory

A
  • (5-9 items) keeping in memory without trying to remember
  • storage that holds non-sensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute; can hold about seven items (+/- 2)
  • rehearsal, chunking, working memory
175
Q

Rehearsal

A
  • can be visual
  • process of keeping information in STM by mentally repeating it
  • phonological, visuo-spatial, central executive
176
Q

Chucking

A
  • creating acronyms for remembering things

* combining small pieces of information into larger clusters that are more easily held in STM

177
Q

Long term memory (LTM)

A
  • infinite capacity and duration - no limit to how much we can remember
  • storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years; no known capacity
178
Q

working memory

A
  • actively keeping it in our minds to transfer to long term (re-processing information)
  • taskmaster - keeping it in mind to do a certain task
  • active maintenance of information in STM
  • manipulation of information for a current task and can facilitate transfer to long-term memory
179
Q

Phonological loop

A
  • verbal

* repeating information

180
Q

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

A
  • visual

* seeing mental images

181
Q

Central executive function

A
  • combines information to complete a task

* allows for manipulation of information

182
Q

Short term memory vs working memory

A

short-term memory <30 sec

183
Q

re-encoding

A

Whenever we retrieve information, we reconsolidate the information

184
Q

Herman Ebbinghaus (the early 1900s

A

Transcience (“forgetting curve”)

185
Q

Forgetting curve

A

how many of the cards he remembered (dots on the graph)

186
Q

Transience’s

A

it’s not permanent - fading of memories

187
Q

Herman Ebbinghaus: Serial Position Curve

A
  • primacy and recency effect

* U shape

188
Q

Recency effect

A

remembered words at ending of list better than the rest - remembering the most recent items you heard better

189
Q

Primary effect

A

remembered words at the beginning of the list better than the rest

190
Q

Amnesia

A

the loss of memory due to brain damage or trama

191
Q

Henry Molaison (H.M.)

A
  • areas on the inner temporal lobe were removed - hippocampus bilaterally cut
  • STM could function
  • LTM could not store new memories
192
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

can’t create new long-term memories after damage occurs (STM can’t create long term memories)

193
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

can’t remember anything prior to the damage

194
Q

Consolidation

A

the process whereby memory store is integrated and becomes stable in the brain (integrating information learned and storing it for another time)
• time-dependent biological process
• boosted during sleep

195
Q

Hebbian learning

A
  • “cells that fire together, wire together”

* memory traces

196
Q

Memory traces

A

neurons contain reminisce of prior firing/ communication between neurons

197
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

a mechanism that creates enduring synaptic connection, which results in increased transmission between neurons

198
Q

LTP increases the amount of protein CREM (cAMP-response element-binding protein)

A

works by changing the activation of genes in neurons and increasing the neuron’s response to stimulation

199
Q

Reconsolidation

A

reactivation of consolidation by retrieving a memory, making the memory susceptible to change

200
Q

Forgetting therapy

A

a technique for theory in which memories are (reconstructed when) reconsolidated, with interference, in order to lessen their effects

201
Q

There are two main types of memories

A

explicit and implicit

202
Q

Explicit

A

involve intentional and conscious remembering (declarative) - hippocampus
• ex: vacation you took 3 years ago
• episodic & semantic

203
Q

Episodic memory

A

the explicit conscious recollection of personal experience (your own episodes)
• mediated by the hippocampus

204
Q

Semantic memory

A

explicit memory supporting knowledge about the world, including concepts and facts (ex: capitals)
• mediated by temporal lobes

205
Q

Implicit

A

form a memory that occurs without any intentional recollection or awareness (non-declarative) - depends on a range of different memory systems on the brain
• ex: how to type
• procedural & priming

206
Q

Procedural

A

a type of implicit memory related to the acquisition of skills (unconscious knowledge or recollection of skills)
• bicycling

207
Q

Priming

A

the increased ability to process a stimulus because of previous exposure (word completion tasks)

208
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

vivid memory for an emotionally significant event, thought to be permanent and detailed as if frozen in time like a photograph

209
Q

Amygdala and hippocampus w/ memory

A

brain activity is enhanced for emotional events (negative)

• due to the stress experienced when these events occurred

210
Q

amygdala

A

facilitates the consolidation of long-term memories made by the hippocampus

211
Q

Recall vs. recognition

A
  • we are not always able to retrieve the information we store in our memories
  • there is no definitive measure of what is stored in memory. It is always influenced by how we retrieve previously learned information
  • recall tends to be harder than recognition
212
Q

Free recall

A

retrieval from memory without any cues to aid your retrieval

213
Q

Cued recall

A

retrieval that is facilitated by providing information related to the stored memory

214
Q

Recognition

A

retrieval that relies on identifying previously seen or experienced information
Influences in memory retrieval: mood, state, when encoding information

215
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

the idea that retrieval is best when the present context recreates the context in which information was initially encoded
• context (with your environment) when you learn is also encoded into that memory

216
Q

State-dependent retrieval

A

increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same state during both encoding and retrieval

217
Q

Mood-dependent retrieval

A

increased likelihood of remembering when in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval

218
Q

Testing to improve your memory

A
  • Self-testing or retrieval practice

* Concept mapping (visual - connecting concepts)

219
Q

Tips for successful learning

A
  • pay attention
  • study often - spacing effect
  • encode deeply - making it meaningful or more conceptual
  • test yourself
  • use retrieval cues (studying in the same spot you are going to take the exam)
  • reduce stress (cortisol can interfere - stress effects consolidation)
  • sleep longer
220
Q

The spacing effect

A

enhanced ability to remember information when encoding is distributed over time

221
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

the scientific study of mental activities and how they operate (Thoughts and mental processes determine our behavior)

222
Q

Cognition

A
  • Problem Solving
  • Memory
  • Judgments and discussion
  • Communication
223
Q

The building blocks of thought

A
  • concept

* prototype

224
Q

Mental representation

A

an internal mental symbol (Mental image)

225
Q

Concept

A

mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli
>Developed throughout life
>Grouped into concepts (individual images that share features)
>Allow used to use prior knowledge to understand and identify new things we encounter

226
Q

Experiences can influence what comes to mind when we think of the group
concepts

A
227
Q

Concepts are organized hierarchically

A
  • Subcarinate –> specific
  • Basic –> general idea (most likely used) (ex bird, dog, banana)
  • Superordinate –> all-encompassing - umbrella term (ex animal, animal, fruit)
228
Q

Prototype

A

The best example or average member of a concept (a prime example that captures a number of characteristics or features)

229
Q

Different Approaches to Problem Solving

A

People use cognitive processes to solve problems in different ways

230
Q

Trial and error

A

(never encountered before (ex. Maze))

•Slow

231
Q

Algorithm

A

a step-by-step procedure for solving problems (flow chart for solving problems)
• ex. Certain procedures for getting ready in the morning, you proceed through the algorithm

232
Q

HELP: Mental set

A

a mental framework for how to solve a problem (with more experience, tendency to approach a problem in a way because it has worked in the past – prior experience to make problem-solving easier)

233
Q

HINDRANCE: Functional fixedness

A

an obstacle to problem-solving that involves focusing on an object’s typical functions (just think about one approach to problem-solving and don’t consider other options)

234
Q

Effective experiential problem-solving:

Restricting

A

the process of reorganizing one’s understanding of a problem to facilitate a solution (reorganizing the way we approach a problem - broadening of what exactly is the problem here)

235
Q

Of Two Minds:

A

Forming Judgements and Making Decisions

236
Q

What guides the information we use when making a decision?

A

• Bounded rationality: the idea that rational decision making is constrained by limitations in people’s cognitive abilities
(Rational decision making is affected by limitations that we have - move outside the mental set)

237
Q

Dual-processing theory

A

the proposal that people have two types of thinking to make judgments and decisions (controlled & automatic)

238
Q

the controlled system

A

is slower and more effortful (consciously processing alternatives - an important decision with no time constraint)

239
Q

the automatic system

A

is fast and fairly effortless (overwhelmed, tired, time constraint)

240
Q

Heuristics

A

(come into play with fast processing) a mental shortcut that allows people to efficiently solve problems and make judgments and decisions
• representative & availability

241
Q

Representative heuristic

A

a mental shortcut for judging the likelihood of something (based on whether or not it is a good representative of a given category or outcome)

242
Q

Availability heuristic

A

a mental shortcut for deciding how frequent or probable something is (based on how easily an example comes to mind)

243
Q

affect and reasoning

A

affect and ventromedial

244
Q

Ventromedial frontal cortex

A

unable to evaluate emotional consequences of their actions

• The ability to associate affective reactions to consequences and outcomes for problem-solving

245
Q

Affect heuristic

A

a mental shortcut for making judgments and decisions that involve relying on affect/emotion (the first reaction to problem-solving is influenced by emotion - not be as effective in decision-making)

246
Q

bias =

A

bad

247
Q

People are often unwilling to change their beliefs because:

A

confirmation bias & belief perseverance

248
Q

confirmation bias

A

the tendency to look for and weigh the evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs (confirmatory evidence over disconformity evidence)

249
Q

Belief perseverance

A

the tendency for people to resist changing their beliefs (even with new information that can disconfirm evidence we continue to believe what we think is right)

250
Q

Framing

A

the particular way that an issue, decision, or set of options is described (just see what’s positive about the product)
• Changes decision-makers reference point
• Norms matter
•And.. Loss aversion

251
Q

Loss aversion

A

the tendency to make choices that minimize losses (making a decision that minimizes losses)

252
Q

We overestimate our knowledge:

A
  • overconfidence bias

* hindsight bias

253
Q

overconfidence bias

A

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgments (overestimating their knowledge) - influences through experience - more experience (less likely for overconfidence) or less experience

254
Q

hindsight bias

A

the tendency, once some outcome is known, to overestimate the likelihood that one would have predicted that outcome

255
Q

Language

A

a system of symbols, and rules of how we are supposed to combine symbols to communicate meaning

256
Q

Phonemes

A

speech sounds (individual sounds that make up speech “hmm”)

257
Q

Morphemes

A

the smallest unit of meaning (words, word parts (prefixes and suffixes)

258
Q

Grammar

A

rules that govern the way that language parts are put together (how words get put together) (syntax and morphology)

259
Q

Syntax

A

arrangement of words into sentences

260
Q

Morphology

A

use of markers to indicate meaning (ex. “s”, “ed”)

261
Q

Pragmatics

A

rules of usage (conversational turn-taking, addressing people of different status, responding, staying on topic)

262
Q

Components of language Hierarchy Arranged

A
  • Sentence
  • Phrase
  • Word
  • Morpheme
  • Phoneme
263
Q

Language and cognition (how language influences thought)

A

Linguistic determinism (or Whorfian) hypothesis

264
Q

Linguistic determinism (or Whorfian) hypothesis

A

Language shapes how we think and how we see the world
• Ex: color words that we have can affect how we categorize color… But doesn’t change the basic perception
• Inuit has many words for snow… Does it change their thoughts about snow? Perception? NO
Language development:
• infants prefer mother’s voice and native language in utero
• experiment with infant pacifier sucking → inc. level of sucking when the mother is talking
• infants can distinguish between all human phonemes, although this ability dissipates by 10-12 months of age - they only have the ability to distinguish they hear in their daily life

265
Q

Milestone - production

A
  • 6-7 months: babbling (produce vowels and constants)
  • 10 months: babbling starts to resemble home language
  • first words about 12 months
  • 2 years: 2-word utterances
  • 3 years: producing sentences with grammatical function words (ex. “of” and “the”)
  • 5 years: speaking words (stringing them together) similarly to adults in vocabulary and grammar
266
Q

Some milestones - comprehension

A
  • 6-9 months: know the meaning of many common nouns
  • segment speech into words (Saffran statistical learning)
  • 3 years: use grammatical context to determine the referent of a word heard (determine what a word means
267
Q

Saffran statistical learning

A

figure out which 3 syllables that go together more often, than another set, based on the sequencing (ex: “ing”)

268
Q

Word learning: Fast mapping

A
  • process of elimination

* process of rapidly learning a new word simply from the contrastive use of a familiar and unfamiliar word

269
Q

Theories of language development:

A

behaviorist, nativist, cognitive

270
Q

Behaviorist

A

B.F. Skinner, language acquisition is based on:

• association formation, reinforcement, imitation

271
Q

Nativist

A

Noam Chomsky, innate specialized learning mechanism:

• language acquisition device (LAD) - born with

272
Q

Cognitive

A

language acquisition based on:
• general perceptual and learning process (ex. Statistical learning- Saffran)
• development of cognitive abilities (memory, attention, serial processing)

273
Q

connectionist

A

gradual strengthening of connections in the neural network

274
Q

Intelligence

A

the capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire new knowledge
> evidence suggests that intelligence is best understood as a combination of general ability (that underlies performance on many mental tasks) and some task-specific abilities

275
Q

Charles Spearman

A

explored if there was a hierarchy of abilities
• found correlation (though not perfect) among many cognitive tasks
• two-factory theory of intelligence

276
Q

Two-factor theory of intelligence

A

general intelligence (g) + skills that are specific to the task (s)

277
Q

Louis Thurstone

A

clustering of correlation disproved g

• argued for a few primary mental abilities that are stable and independent

278
Q

Recent confirmatory factor analysis found

A

• both Spearman and Thurstone were correct
• correlations between scores on different mental ability tests = three-level hierarchy
> general factor, specific factors, and group factors

279
Q

Robert Sternberg (1949 - )

A

argued for three kinds of intelligence (analytic, creative, and practical)

280
Q

Analytic

A

“componential” intelligence (problem-solving) - using what we know

281
Q

Creative

A

“experiential” intelligence (novel solutions) - through an experience you know more variability in solving new tasks

282
Q

Practical

A

“contextual” intelligence (everyday) - street smart

283
Q

Howard Gardner’s theory

A

multiple intelligences - savant syndrome - goes against the notion of “g”

284
Q

Savant syndrome

A

a syndrome in developmentally disabled individuals (autism) that involves the presence of unusual talents/ abilities

285
Q

Heritability

A

an indication of how much variation in phenotype across people is due to differences in genotype - some environmental effect on intelligence

286
Q

Nature and nurture - intelligence

A

An enriching developmental environment influence intelligence
• families in higher SES may be able to provide more enriching environments to their children
• early intervention programs for children living in impoverished environments

287
Q

Mindsets

A

a set of attitudes or beliefs that shape how a person perceives and responds to the world (fixed mindset & growth mindset)

288
Q

Fixed mindset

A

intelligence is unchanging (avoid challenges, think that intelligence is fixed from birth)

289
Q

Growth mindset

A

intelligence can be developed (think you can work harder and can get better)

Psych - Exam 2 (1 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions