Exam Flashcards
Charles Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
- New research reveals: Indian societies were bigger, older and more sophisticated than previously believed, and had greater impact on the environment
- Term old and new world are problematic, nothing new about latin america, there were many people there for many years before columbus.
Americas in the Pre-Colonial Period
- Indigenous population in all of the Americas at time of conquest was around 100 million
- with about 2/5ths in North America vs. about 50 million in all of Western and Eastern Europe at the same time was about 50 million
- Primarily agricultural societies
- extremely sophisticated technologies of agriculture production to feed their populations
- people intensively farming on man made islands
Aztec Empire (Mexica/ Triple Alliance) – early 1300s to 1521
- originated from Michica people, started spreading and conquering other tribes, highly centralized imperial militaritistic systems
Mayan Empire – around 300 BC to 1300 AD
- in mostly guatemala parts of mexico and honduras
- extremely advanced civilization had declined by the time colonizers got there
- decline due to environmental factors, internal fighting etc no one really knows
Common Factors among Indigenous Civilizations
- Political and economic diversity
- Mayan, Aztec and Incan empires: high degree of political hierarchy, centralized political systems
- aztecs and incans have divine centralised systems
- Communal land ownership
yass #marxist - Largely locally oriented production
- Reverence for the earth (Pachamama)
- Tributary systems transferred products from one area to another
- Staples: corn, potatoes, turkey, pumpkins, tomatoes, chocolate – no large domesticated animals
- Unfortunately for them, they didn’t develop iron or gunpowder
- Communal orientation indigenous resistance still feedstoday
Iberian Society before the Conquest
Historical Precendents in Europe
- Trade with the Orient - cut off by rise of Ottoman empire
- Portuguese colonization of Western Africa and the Atlantic Islands the Reconquista
Political System in Iberian Peninsula at the time of the conquest
- feudalism
- centralized monarchy, despotic, authoritarian
Economic system: Mercantilism
- search for gold
- exploration in search of colonies
- plunder and conquest, not investment
- lack of a national bourgeoisie
- exported primary goods: wine, wool, iron ore, etc.
- influx of silver fueled inflation contraband
Defeat of Indigenous Rulers
Less advanced military technology
Local rivalries
Demographic
disaster
Disease – “the great dying”
Malnutrition
Social disruption
Colonial Period
a) Legal system – Laws of the Indies, Treaty of Tordesillas
b) Political System
- Political control by Council of the Indies in Spain and Viceroys in colonies
- Division between peninsulares and criollos
- Too much power delegated to local authorities
- Municipal councils represent interests of the colonial elites
- Peninsulares and Creoles were united against a common enemy: Indians
- Harmony of interests was undermined in the late 18th, early 19th centuries by the decline of Spain and Portugal
Colonial effects of Mercantilism
Tight central control over the colonial economy by Spain – Crown received 1/5th (Quinto Real) plus high levels of taxation
Industrialization actively prevented
Only limited number of ports permitted to engage in commerce with Spain – led to contraband trade with British
Created pattern of dependency: economic progress dependent upon the demands of the metropolis.
Reliance upon one or two exports
forced labour relations in the colonial period
i) slavery
ii) encomienda (trusteeship)
pretty much slavery but not called that
iii) repartimiento - after 1542
working for the land owner (not slaves) but required to take on debts that enslaved them
iv) some wage labour – but accompanied by debt peonage
v) control over sexuality of women
Role of the Church in the Colonial Period
close ties between church and state
exploitation of Indians was legitimized
conversion of Indians (religious and secular reasons)
mitigated the effects of imperialism
Syncretism
major economic actor
Main features of independent governments
frustrated dreams of Latin American unity (Bolívar)
civil wars 1810 to 1825
republican forms of government (except initially in Brazil), abolition of slavery
conservative nature of new regimes
basis laid for nation-building strategies
arrival of free trade ideology- economic, not political liberalism
Conflict between “liberals” and “conservatives”
Rise of Liberalism (2nd half of 19th century)
Industrial Revolution in Europe - provision of agricultural and pastoral goods to feed industry in Europe
Political system
Integration into World Economy
Culture: civilization vs. barbarism
Independence –sources of change
Events in Europe
- Bourbon reforms
- Napoleonic wars
- Enlightenment ideas (and revolutions in France and U.S.)
Internal causes
- Rising creole resentment
- Indigenous rebellions
- Extended revolutionary wars
Modernization/Neo-Classical - emerged in 1950s (Theories of Development)
Prescribes using the process the West followed to development as a model
Focuses on cultural differences (influence of Max Weber, elective affinity between Protestantism and capitalism
Development is primarily endogenous and unilinear
How is transition from tradition to modernity accomplished? - positive Western influence: knowledge, skills, organization, values, technology, and especially capital are transmitted through cultural and economic diffusion
View of international system – benign
Economic explanations of modernization theory
- “invisible hand” (Smith), laws of supply and demand
- Benefits of free trade - Absolute advantage - (Smith): the idea that a country doesn’t need to trade with another country if it can produce everything more cheaply than can its potential trading partner
vs. Comparative advantage (Ricardo): ability of a nation to produce a product or service at a lower opportunity cost than another product
Problems with modernization theory?
B. Structuralism – big name: Raúl Prebisch, ECLA (Theories of development)
Historical analysis of the development of an international division of labour – saw development and underdevelopment as a single, connected process
division between an industrial center and an agrarian periphery – connected through processes of expropriation of surplus (Prebisch-Singer hypothesis)
theory of unequal exchange and declining terms of trade (Prebisch thesis) (see Figure 4 p. 185 Vanden, Prevost & Stahler-Sholk)
market is not unbiased, bias towards the interest of developed countries
Import-Substituting Industrialization (ISI)
replace imports with making it for themselves
Active state intervention to support national industries, creation/promotion of national capitalist class
Finance directed at fledgling industries
Training, education in technical skills
High tariff levels for manufactured goods
Some nationalization of foreign corporations
Subsidies to national industries
agricultural sectors neglected
Imports of capital goods
debt-led growth
Dependency theory (Theories of development)
Big names: André Gunder Frank, Theotonio dos Santos, Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Enzo Faletto
Marxist analysis, inspired by Lenin’s theory of imperialism but critical of Communist Party
Historical form of analysis
Basic differences from Structuralism:
role of international economy
different view of dependency
different view of the political system and class analysis
solutions
Main Criticisms?
Name 5 phases of economic development
answers in week 2 pp
Oligarchy/Caudillismo
People that lead independence and set up their own form of power
Countries were very fragmented with local strong men that governed their region unchecked, no elections and no check on power
Nature of the military/leadership
personalistic form of military rule – strong dictators like Somoza (Nicaragua), Batista (Cuba), Stroessner (Paraguay), de Rosas (Argentina), Porfirio Diaz (Mexico), etc.
Context: “traditional” economic systems
External Factors
Role of U.S. in Central America/Caribbean
De La Torre definition of populism
“ I define populism as a strategy to get to power and to govern based on the democratizing demand to return power to its original owners: “the people”
populism : Julio Carrión: - four constitutive elements:
(1) a style of leadership that is highly personalistic;
(2) an unmediated or poorly institutionalized leader/mass relationship that privileges mechanisms of direct democracy rather than representative democracy;
(3) a political discourse or mentality that divides the world between “us” and “them”; and
(4) a general distrust of institutional checks and balances that would limit the power of the leader.
Military Dictatorships (1960s-1970s)
Bureaucratic Authoritarianism:
Policy decisions made by high-ranking officers and technocrats
Characteristics (Guillermo O’Donnell):
Comprehensive control of society
Repressive
Bureaucratic and technocratic
Closely linked to international capital
External Factors:
Cold War context
U.S. influence through military training and technology transfers
School of the Americas
Country-Specific Cases: Argentina (1966-1983):
“Dirty War” (1976-1983): 10,000-20,000 “disappeared”
Challenges:
Rising criticism of human rights abuses
Economic decline: $43 billion foreign debt (1982), shrinking economy
Falkland/Malvinas War (1982)
Country-Specific Cases:Brazil (1964-1985):
Rapid economic growth: “Brazilian Miracle” (1968-1974)
Military allied with foreign multinational corporations
Country specific Cases: Chile (1973-1988):
Coup d’état (1973): Overthrow of Salvador Allende
Pinochet dictatorship:
Human rights violations
Neoliberal policies led by “Chicago Boys”
Constitution of 1980 designed for transition to democracy
Lost 1988 plebiscite
Defining Democracy
General Definition: Government by which people exercise sovereignty.
Key Characteristics:
Free and fair elections with opposition and alternation of power.
Rule of law and constitutional mechanisms for election legitimacy.
Freedom of speech and access to alternative information.
Checks and balances on power.
Civilian governance and secularism.
Representation and protection of social, economic, and cultural rights.
Minimalist Definitions of Democracy
Joseph Schumpeter: Democracy is a competitive struggle for the people’s vote.
Robert Dahl (1971): “Polyarchy” with seven components:
Elected officials.
Free and fair elections.
Inclusive suffrage.
Right to run for public office.
Freedom of expression.
Availability of alternative information.
Associational autonomy.
Maximalist Definitions of Democracy
Holmes and Piñeres: Democratic development includes:
Democratic inclusiveness (e.g., representation of minorities).
Health of democracy (e.g., corruption levels, political rights).
Human capital (e.g., education quality).
Economic/political security.
Terry Lynn Karl: Democracy involves:
Contestation and competition for office.
Citizen participation through collective action.
Accountability through rule of law and civilian control over the military.
Democracy as a spectrum rather than a dichotomy.
Causes of Democratization in the 1980s
Modernization Theory:
Economic development leads to democratization (Lipset, 1959).
Discredited by military coups in the 1960s/70s.
Economic and Political Explanations:
Economic crisis from debt and neoliberal Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs).
Rise of social movements (e.g., Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo).
External Factors:
Pressure from NGOs and international organizations.
Decline of Cold War-era authoritarianism.
Inter-American Democratic Charter (2001).
Democratic Consolidation
Consolidation occurs when democracy becomes stable, but Latin American democracies remain fragile and incomplete (Lowenthal & Domínguez):
Issues with participation and representation.
Accountability challenges.
Inequality and economic constraints.
Weak political culture, parties, and civil society.
Democratic Backsliding in Latin America
Challenges:
Clientelism.
Weak parties and civil society.
Human rights violations and threats to activists.
Tests to Democracy:
Venezuela (2002, 2016).
Haiti (2004).
Mexico (2006).
Honduras (2009).
Brazil (2016).
Causes of Decline in Support:
Economic cycle and poor government performance.
Rise in populist and authoritarian attitudes.
Perception of political elites as ineffective.
Case Study: Venezuela Democratic Backsliding
Timeline:
1958-1989: Punto Fijo government with alternating parties.
1975: Nationalization of oil.
1989: Caracazo protests and military repression.
1998: Hugo Chávez elected; adopts pro-poor policies.
2002: Failed coup attempt.
2006: Declares “21st-century socialism.”
2013: Chávez dies; Nicolás Maduro assumes presidency.
2019: Opposition declares Juan Guaidó interim president; contested elections.
2024: Maduro wins presidential election amid controversy.
What is neoliberalism in political economy?
A school of thought advocating for market forces over state intervention, based on Adam Smith’s principle of the “invisible hand.”
Which economists are associated with the intellectual origins of neoliberalism?
Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman.
What is stagflation?
A combination of stagnant growth, low employment rates, and high inflation.
What role did the “Chicago Boys” play in Chile’s neoliberal policies?
Chilean economists trained in Chicago implemented neoliberal policies under the military dictatorship to address inflation and protectionism.
What caused the Latin American debt crisis in 1982?
Rising debt, super high inflation, and declining export income, exacerbated by banks lending petrodollars from increased oil prices.
How did the US and UK respond to economic crises in the 1980s?
They adopted neoliberal monetarism under leaders like Reagan and Thatcher, with policies like the Volcker shock raising interest rates to 20%.
What is the Washington Consensus?
Policies developed by Washington-based institutions to address the debt crisis, emphasizing austerity, privatization, and trade liberalization.
What were key elements of first-generation Structural Adjustment Programs?
Fiscal discipline and privatization.
Elimination of subsidies for food and utilities.
Trade liberalization and competitive exchange rates.
Financial deregulation and promotion of foreign investment.
How did SAPs affect poverty levels in Latin America?
Poverty increased from 26.5% (1980) to 31% (1989).
By the late 1980s, 40 million more people were in poverty.
What characterized second-generation reforms?
Targeted social programs (e.g., Progresa/Bolsa Familia).
Legal reform for private property.
Labor flexibilization and “good governance.”
Decentralization and free trade agreements.
How did neoliberal reforms impact education and the economy?
Undermining education negatively affected economic development, and poverty levels rose significantly.
What was the Monroe Doctrine (1823) and its significance?
The Monroe Doctrine stated that the American continents were no longer open to European colonization, asserting U.S. authority over the Western Hemisphere.
How did Britain influence Latin America in the post-independence period (1820s-1850s)?
Britain was the dominant foreign power during this period, exercising significant economic influence.
What were key territorial expansions of the U.S. in the 19th century?
1836: Texas declared independence from Mexico.
1845: Texas annexed by the U.S.
1846-1848: Mexican-American War.
1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded vast territories to the U.S
What were filibusters, and how did they reflect U.S. attitudes?
Filibusters were private mercenaries inspired by Manifest Destiny, raiding lands in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. They symbolized U.S. expansionist ideology.
What marked the rise of U.S. influence in Latin America between 1880 and World War I?
1898: Spanish-American War and military occupation of Cuba.
1901: Platt Amendment gave the U.S. control over Cuba.
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine justified U.S. interventions.
Heavy U.S. investments in Central America, particularly through companies like United Fruit.
What were “banana republics”?
Central American countries dominated by U.S. corporations like United Fruit, characterized by economic dependence, semi-slavery conditions, and U.S.-backed authoritarian regimes.
