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1
Q

What is TMS?

A

A ‘non-invasive’ technique used to create ‘virtual cortical lesions’

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2
Q

What is neural noise?

A

Uses single-pulse TMS to disrupt cognitive processing

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3
Q

What is the ‘virtual lesion’ approach?

A

Repetitive TMS (rTMS) is used to interrupt or enhance cognitive processing

(able to inhibit functions for longer period)

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4
Q

What is the ‘probing excitability’ approach?

A

Uses single-pulse TMS to measure how strongly motor cortex ‘reacts’ to a pulse, i.e. how strong its output is after being stimulated

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5
Q

How is the ‘probing excitability’ approach measured?

A

Measured by recording motor evoked potentials (MEPs) using the electromyogram (EMG)

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6
Q

What is the ‘probing information transfer’ approach?

A

Uses two pulses, delivered in brief succession, questions how first pulse influences effect of the second

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7
Q

What is the formula for a t-value?

A

…….M – µ
t = ————
………Sm

t: t-statistic, which measures size of difference relative to variation in your sample data
M: Sample mean
μ: Average result you would expect if you could survey entire population
Sm: Standard error of mean, which is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the sample mean.

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8
Q

What is the one-sample experimental design?

A

One group with values coming from different people.

This is then compared to a single value

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9
Q

What is the independent-measures experimental design?

A

Two groups, each value comes from different person

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10
Q

What is the repeated-measures experimental design?

A

Single group which provides data for both conditions

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11
Q

What are the pros and cons of the one-sample design?

A

Advantages:
- Can be used to compare group data to known values

Disadvantages:
- May not always know population values
- May want to compare two groups, or to investigate change of behaviour over time

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12
Q

What are the pros and cons of the independent-measures design?

A

Advantages:
- The measurements are independent
- We don’t have to worry about learning effects due to repeated exposure

Disadvantages:
- People in different groups might be quite different in various ways
- We need large sample sizes to average out these effects, or we need to counterbalance factors that may influence results
- We cannot study behaviour over time

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13
Q

What are the pros and cons of the repeated-measures design?

A

Advantages:
- We don’t have to think about differences in baseline factors such as personality because this will affect both conditions equally
- We can study changes in behaviour over time
- We can usually test fewer people

Disadvantages:
- Measurements are not independent
- People know the treatment after the first conditions and can’t be naive in the second round. This might not work for all experiments
- We need to carefully counterbalance conditions to avoid unwanted order effects

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14
Q

How do we know if one sample t-test supports our hypothesis

A

If the result is in the most extreme 5% of the distribution

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15
Q

What type of test do we use when we have a non-directional hypothesis

A

A two-tailed t-test

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16
Q

What does the independent-measures t-test measure?

A

How two groups, exposed to different experimental conditions, differ on a particular measure

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17
Q

How does an independent measures t-test differ from a paired-samples t-test?

A

Independent measures test looks at two different groups under different conditions, paired-samples looks at same group under two different conditions

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18
Q

What is Cohen’s d?

A

Estimate of effect size that is independent of sample size

d is the mean difference divided by the standard deviation

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19
Q

What are the three cut-off values for Cohen’s d?

A

d = 0.2 small effect
d = 0.5 medium effect
d = 0.8 large effect

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20
Q

What does an r^2 value represent?

A

An estimate of the percentage of variation explained by the ‘treatment’

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21
Q

What are the three cut-off values for r^2 as suggested by Cohen?

A

r^2 = 0.01 small effect
r^2 = 0.09 medium effect
r^2 = 0.25 large effect

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22
Q

What is a confidence interval?

A

A range where we think the group average lies, based on sample data.

e.g. setting a 95% confidence interval means we can be sure our population mean was contained in this interval 95% of the time (M = 60, 95% CI [50, 70]

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23
Q

What are the three assumptions before t tests are completed?

A

a. The observations must be independent (people mustn’t influence each others results)
b. The populations from which samples are drawn must be normal (can be violated for larger sample sizes however)
c. If comparing two populations (independent-measures) samples must have equal variances

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24
Q

What are action potentials?

A

Electrical signals that occur when neurons are excited

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25
What is the basilar membrane?
Structure in the inner ear that vibrates in response to sound, helping to convert sound waves into nerve signals
26
How do cochlear implants work?
Electrodes placed along basilar membrane, stimulation causes spiral ganglion cells to generate action potential
27
What are the purpose of rod and cone cells
Rod cells detect light and are used for night vision Cone cells detect color and are used for daytime vision
28
What are the two types of colour-blindness?
Deuteranopia: green cones are absent Protanopia: red cones are absent
29
What is the retinogeniculate pathway?
Transmits visual information from the retina to the LGN for detailed visual processing
30
What is the retinohypothalamic pathway?
Conveys light information from retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus to regulate circadian rhythms
31
What are ganglion cells?
Neurons in the retina that receive visual information from photoreceptors and transmit it to the brain via the optic nerve
32
What is the retinotopic organisation of the primary visual cortex?
Cells close together get input from same region of retina More cortical cells devoted to fovea than periphery
33
Blobs vs Interblobs
Blobs - Colour Interblobs - Orientation - Motion - Depth
34
What is a cortical column module?
Process information in small region of space, but tile entire visual field
35
What is the two-streams hypothesis
Ventral stream Computes detailed map of world from visual input Dorsal stream transforms incoming visual information for action
36
What are the four types of ganglion cells?
Red-Green Opponent Ganglion Cells: R-G: Excited by red light, inhibited by green light G-R: Excited by green light, inhibited by red light Yellow-Blue Opponent Ganglion Cells: Y-B: Excited by yellow light, inhibited by blue light B-Y: Excited by blue light, inhibited by yellow light
37
Damage to medial temporal-temporal does what?
Reduces ability to judge movement
38
What is motion blindness (akinetopsia)?
- caused by damage to MT - see world in snapshots - unable to judge speed - can see biological motion
39
How are scenes processed?
Low Levels: Separate modules identify basic features Middle Levels: These features are recombined High Levels: Brain makes sense of info
40
What are the three levels of analysis in Marr's approach?
Computational Level: What is the goal of recognition? Algorithmic Level: How can the goal of recognition be executed? Implementational Level: How can the algorithm be carried out by the brain?
41
What is the role of the inferior temporal cortex?
Synthesis of form, colour and depth
42
What are the functional modules in the ventral stream and their roles?
V4 - analysis of form; processing of colour constancy; LO - object recognition FFA - face recognition, object recognition PPA - recognition of particular places EBA - perception of body parts
43
What is visual object agnosia and how does it occur?
Loss of ability to recognise familiar objects, occurs through damage to inferior part of temporal cortex
44
Why are we aware of only a small part of our visual world?
- Neural limitations - Metabolic limitations - Computational efficiency - Computational complexity - Conscious decision making
45
What are the two ways attention can be defined?
- By showing enhanced sensitivity at an attended location - By measuring reaction times to visual events
46
List the brain regions that have shown neural correlates of visual attention
Sub cortical regions - *Superior colliculus* - *Pulvinar nucleus* Visually responsive cortical regions - *Intraparietal sulcus (IPS)* - *V1, V4, MT, MST* Prefrontal cortex
47
What are the key components in spatial navigation?
Place Cells: fire at specific locations Grid Cells: Fire in a hexagonal pattern across environment Head Direction Cells: Activate based on the direction the head faces Border/Boundary Cells: Fire when near navigational boundaries, facing certain directions
48
What is the region of the visual cortex that processes scenes?
The parahippocampal place area (PPA)
49
When comparing taxi and bus drivers, what is each generally better at?
Taxi drivers were significantly better than bus drivers at navigational tasks Bus drivers were significantly better than taxi drivers at recalling newly learned visual information after a delay
50
What were the findings from HM?
- Forgetfulness - Verbal and non-verbal impairment - Affect all sensory modalities
51
Which structures were removed from HM?
- Amygdala - Most of hippocampi - Part of parahippocampal gyrus - Some connections
52
Retrograde vs anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia - Impairment for memories created prior to injury Anterograde amnesia - Impairment for memories created after injury - Impairment in learning new info
53
Declarative vs procedural memory
Declarative memory - Consciously recalling facts and events Procedural memory - Remembering ‘how to’
54
Was patient HM able to learn new skills?
Yes, but couldn't recall learning them
55
What is the role of hippocampal formation?
Learning new information and relational memory
56
What does Papez's circuit comprise?
- Mammillary bodies - Fornix - Anterior thalamic nuclei - Cingulate gyrus - Hippocampus
57
What occurs in Papez's circuit lesions?
Declarative memory impairment and other functions
58
What is the role of amygdala in memory?
Supporting memory for emotionally arousing experiences
59
Amygdala lesions result in...
Loss of fears and impairment of fear learning
60
What does damage to the frontal lobe result in?
Impairment remembering contextual details and confabulation
61
A Man's Door In" A: Anterior and Medial thalamus Amnesia Man: Mammillo-thalamic tract Episodic long-term memory deficit, spared intellect, and short-term memory D: Dorsal Medial nucleus Deficit in selecting information In: Intralaminar/midline nuclei Impairments in memory retrieval and semantic memory
62
What does Hebb's rule state?
- If neuron A repeatedly excites neuron B - Changes take place in both neurons - So neuron B is more easily excited by neuron A
63
What is long-term depression of the synapse?
Connections not used decrease in strength
64
What is habituation in the synapse?
Repeated stimulation reduces strength of response
65
What is sensitisation in the synapse?
Single stimulus causes exaggerated synaptic response to future presentation of that stimulus
66
What is dementia?
Cognitive or behavioural symptoms that... Interfere with function Represent decline Are not due to delirium or psychiatric illness Are associated with cognitive impairment in 2+ domains
67
What is Aβ and how is it detected?
Chain of 40-42 amino acids Detected by: - Amyloid PET - CSF analysis - Blood tests
68
What is Tau and how is it detected?
Protein involved in stabilising microtubules of axons Detected by: - Tau PET - CSF analysis - Blood tests
69
What is the pathological sequence of Alzheimers?
Aβ and tau → synaptic dysfunction → cell loss → cognitive and functional decline (dementia)
70
What are the treatments for Alzheimers?
- Symptomatic relief - Anti-amyloid - Anti-tau - Downstream
71
How does EEG work?
Placing electrodes on scalp, picks up small electrical signal fluctuations
72
What brain regions are involved in face recognition and spatial perception?
FFA: Fusiform Face Area - Processes faces PPA: Parahippocampal Place Area - Processes scenes EBA: Extrastriate Body Area - Processes body parts
73
What is Bonferri-correction?
Used to avoid risk of false positives Divide significance level (usually 0.05) by number of tests to determine new statistical significance threshold (e.g. 0.05/10 = 0.005)
74
What is reverse inference?
Assuming a mental state based on observed brain activity without direct proof of that mental state
75
More anterior regions (front) represent... More posterior regions (back) represent...
More anterior regions (front) represent more abstract info More posterior regions (back) represent more specific content
76
What are the two types of neuron receptors?
Ion channels G-Protein coupled
77
How do ion channels work?
When neurotransmitter binds to receptor, causes gate to open and select ions can flow through
78
How do G-Protein coupled receptors work?
When neurotransmitter binds to receptor it activates second messenger, that opens channels or causes other changes in cell
79
Neurotransmission vs neuromodulation
Neurotransmission either excites or inhibits nearby cells rapidly Neuromodulation affects groups of nearby cells for longer period
80
What are the two ways that drugs can mimic neurotransmitters/neuromodulators?
Agonist - activate receptor Antagonist - inhibit receptor
81
What is the cycle of a neurotransmitter?
1. Synthesis 2. Release from synaptic vesicles 3. Binds to receptors 4. + / - influence on post synaptic neuron 5. Broken down by enzymes 6. Reuptake of transmitter 7. Formation & storage in synaptic vesicles
82
What are 4 types of non-traditional 'neurotransmitters'?
Peptides Nucleosides Lipids Gasses
83
What are hormones?
Signalling molecules produced by glands and transported through blood
84
What is glutamate?
The main excitatory neurotransmitter, synthesised in brain
85
How does alcohol affect NMDA receptors of glutamate?
It inhibits the NMDA receptors, reducing glutamate function causing sedative effects and memory loss
86
What is GABA?
Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Insufficient GABA functioning may cause seizures
87
What is the dopamine synthesis pathway?
Tyrosine ➜ L-DOPA ➜ Dopamine and sometimes ➜ noradrenaline
88
What is Parkinson's caused by?
Death of dopamine in the substantia nigra
89
What is the reward prediction error?
Unexpected reward ➜ Increased DA neuron activity and release Expected reward not provided ➜ DA neurons suppressed
90
Rewards can be...
- real - symbolic - virtual
91
How do cocaine and amphetamines function?
Cocaine blocks DA reuptake Amphetamine reverses DA uptake
92
What is dopamine synthesised from?
Amino acids or drugs containing L-DOPA
93
What makes addictive drugs 'addictive'?
They trigger a dopamine response that is "better than expected"
94
What causes high and low Locus Ceruleus activity and what occurs for each?
High Activity: Triggered by extreme stimuli, associated with the 4 F’s (Fight, Flight, Freeze, Fornicate), leads to stress, anxiety, panic attacks Low Activity: Associated with rest and low arousal states, promotes exploration
95
What are some of the functions of noradrenaline (NA) at moderate Locus Ceruleus activity levels?
Decision-Making: NA release helps consolidate decisions by tipping balance in favour of selected behavior Exploration vs. Exploitation: NA helps balance between exploiting known rewards and exploring new opportunities
96
What can pupil dilation help indicate?
Noradrenaline release
97
What is serotonin?
A neuromodulator involved in sleep, arousal, appetite, temperature, working memory, hallucinations and mood
98
Where is serotonin produced?
In the raphe nucleus
99
What do MAOIs do?
Prevent the breakdown of serotonin, increasing its levels
100
What do SSRIs do?
Increase serotonin levels by blocking its reuptake
101
What do peptides consist of?
2 or more amino acids
102
What is the role of lipids?
Energy storage, signalling, structure
103
What are the two lipid receptors and where are they found?
CB1 (brain) CB2 (peripheral)
104
What is the role of nucleosides?
Modulate the release of neurotransmitters
105
What two gasses do neurons use as neurotransmitters?
Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide
106
What is one example of each of the four peptides and gasses (peptides, lipids, nucleosides, and gasses) and its role?
Peptides: opioids - pain relief Lipids: cannabis - medical or leisure Nucleosides: adenosine - drowsiness, caffeine - wakefulness Gasses: Nitric oxide - unclear

Bio Psych (1 decks)

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