Exam

Question 1

What is the conflict between Authority and Autonomy according to Wolff?

Answer 1

Wolff argues that autonomous beings must be self-legislating. However obediance to an authority implies doing what the authority is asking without reflecting.

Question 2

In what sense are autonomous beings necessarily self-legislating according to Wolff?

Answer 2

To be autonomous is a mix of freedom and taking responsibility. In order to take responsibility, one must reflect critically before taking action. (Obediance to an authority is thus incompatible with taking responsibility).

Question 3

Under what circumstances can freedom be constrainted according to J.S. Mill?

Answer 3

Mill argues that personal liberty cannot be impeded upon unless it is to avoid non-consensual direct harm to other people’s liberties.

Question 4

What is the realm of liberty according to J.S. Mill?

Answer 4

Mill lists 4 basic liberties:
1. Freedom of conscience
2. Freedom of expression
3. Freedom of assembly
4. Freedom to choose one’s notion of a good life.

Question 5

What are the 2 notions of Liberty according to Berlin, and what is the difference between them?

Answer 5

Positive and Negative Freedom.
Positive freedom is the freedom to do something, whereas negative freedom is the freedom from constraint.

Question 6

What is the state of Nature under Hobbes?

Answer 6

Hobbes argues that in a state of nature, people are relatively equal and free, and they compete for the same resources. This results in a state of war.

Question 7

What is the state of Nature under Locke

Answer 7

According to Locke, in the state of nature we are relatively equal and completely free. However, unlike Hobbes, Locke concludes that we would live in a state of peace.
Everyone would have the same abilities and rights (incl. property rights).

Question 8

How do we resolve the state of war under Hobbes?

Answer 8

Hobbes argues that the authority of the state is necessary to protect us from one another. The state is unimaginably powerful and people voluntarily obey it in order to protect themselves.

Question 9

What are the laws of Nature under Hobbes?

Answer 9

Laws of nature are found by reason.
People are forbidden from hurting themselves.
1. People should try to bring about peace. Failing to do so, they may resort to the means of war.
2. People should be willing to lay down their right inasmuch as they want other’s to do so.
3. People have to perform their covenants.

Question 10

What is the ultimate value according to Ayn Rand, and how does it relate to her argument?

Answer 10

Rand argues that the ultimate value is the continuation of life. As such, what is valuable is what sustains life. It serves as a standard of value for all other values.

Question 11

What are the three virtues according to Rand?

Answer 11

1. Rationality: reason is the only source of knowledge
2. Productiveness: productive work is the process by which man’s mind sustains his life.
3. Pride: just as man must acquire physical value to sustain his life, he must acquire the values that make his life worth living.

Question 12

What are the three values needed to further the ultimate value according to Rand?

Answer 12

1. Reason
2. Purpose
3. Self-Esteem

Question 13

What is the principle of justice according to Rand?

Answer 13

Ayn Rand argues in favour of the principle of trade. Under that principle, people are free to make use of their endowments as they wish, and resources are distributed according to what one deserves to earn.

Question 14

What is the Theory of Entitlement?

Answer 14

The Theory of Entitlement by Robert Nozick advances that a person is entitled to an endowment if it acquired it in accordance with the principles of justice in acquisition, transaction and reparation.
1. Justice in acquisition: a person is entitled to an endowment if it acquired legitimately
2. Justice in transaction: a distribution is just if the transactions were legitimate
3. Rectification: how past injustices are to be repaired (?)

Question 15

What is a patterned distribution?

Answer 15

A patterned distribution is a distribution that varies according to some natural property. (E.g. taller people should earn more).

Question 16

Why and how does Nozick argue against patterned distributions?

Answer 16

Patterned distributions would upset Nozick’s theory of entitlement, as a distribution based on natural properties would not be made in accordance with his principles of justice. Indeed, if people may only transact voluntarily, then any distribution based on other natural properties would upset people transacting freely.
To maintain a pattern, one would have to constantly interfere with the voluntary distribution of goods.

Question 17

For Hobbes, why is there no justice in the state of nature?

Answer 17

In the state of nature there are no laws, and therefore no way to uphold justice.

Question 18

For Hobbes, why are contracts and covenants void in the state of nature?

Answer 18

In the state of nature, there are no reasons to believe that others will perform their covenants, and so there is enough reasonable suspicion to render covenants void.

Question 19

What is the difference between philosophical and political anarchism?

Answer 19

Philosophical anarchism is merely an internal rejection of the authority of the state, it does not follow that we need to act.
Political anarchism is the actual rejection of the state authority, and the willingness/intention to create an alternate social order.

Question 20

What is the view that Wolff defends?

Answer 20

Wolff defends a view where as autonomous beings we should not obey the authority of the state. That being said, states may still have de facto authority (but not de jure).

Question 21

What is the difference between de facto and de jure authority?

Answer 21

De facto authority refers to the claim of authority, or being thought to have authority by others.
De jure authority refers to actually having the right to rule, the legitimacy to do so.

Question 22

What is the difference between power and authority according to Wolff?

Answer 22

Authority is the right to command, whereas power is the ability to compel.

Question 23

What is Arendt’s idea about a good life?

Answer 23

Arendt argues in favor of a life of political collaboration. It is through a life of political collaboration that we best realize our humanity.

Question 24

How does Arendt argue in favour of a life of political collaboration?

Answer 24

1. For Arendt, to be human is to be free
2. To be free is to act.
3. Consistent and free actions are best embodied in universal principles.
4. Principles are embodied in politics.
5. Political collaboration is then necessary to achieve our positive freedom and thus our humanity. Freedom is also our reason to come together politically (raison d’être of politics.

Question 25

What is a procedural theory of justice and which author seen in class proposes such a theory?

Answer 25

Rawls.
A procedural theory of justice refers to a theory in which we arrive a principles of justice through a procedure rather than mere reference to laws of nature. In Rawls’ case he argues that we must go through the process under the veil of ignorance in order to derive the principles of justice.

Question 26

What is taking responsibility in Wolff’s view?

Answer 26

Taking responsibility does not merely involve making a choice, but it involves attempting to determine what one ought to do. Freedom of choice is thus insufficient, but also the capacity to reason is necessary to find out what one ought to do.
Responsibility = Free will + Reason

Question 27

What is autonomy according to Wolff?

Answer 27

Autonomy is akin to self-legislation. It is a “combination of taking responsibility and freedom”.
“The autonomous man, insofar as he is autonomous is not the subject of the will of another.”

Question 28

What is the defining mark of the state?

Answer 28

Authority, the right to rule.

Question 29

What is the primary obligation of man according to Wolff?

Answer 29

Autonomy, the refusal to be ruled.

Question 30

How do we end up in the state of war according to Hobbes?

Answer 30

Hobbes says that we have relatively equal ability in the state of nature.
From this equality, we have an equality of hope, so we strive towards the same ends.
In trying to achieve these same ends, we try to subdue or destroy one another.

Question 31

Which authors defend a view akin to the Rule of Law?

Answer 31

• Hobbes
• Locke
• Nozick

Question 32

What is the right of Nature according to Hobbest?

Answer 32

The right to preserve oneself.

Question 33

What is Hobbes’ definition of injustice?

Answer 33

The non-performance of covenants

Question 34

How is the commonwealth, the Leviathan created?

Answer 34

By giving up their right to govern themselves, every man bind themselves to the Leviathan and give up autonomy to the authority of the state.

Question 35

What is action? And when is one free to act according to Arendt?

Answer 35

Actions comes out of universal principles that are independent of mental states. Free action is free from motives.
“Only where the I-will and I-can coincide does freedom come to pass”.

Question 36

How does Arendt argue against the will?

Answer 36

According to her, will and will-to-power are synonymous and appeal to the desire to oppress.
A government based on the will is a tyranny.

Question 37

What is the law of nature under Locke?

Answer 37

Locke argues that by reason, being equal and independent, we arrive at the conclusion that one ought not to hurt others in life, possessions and liberty. This is the reason we are not in a state of war like under Hobbes.

Everyone may enforce this law of nature.

Question 38

What is the state of war under Locke? And how do we avoid it?

Answer 38

The state of war for Locke is when someone imposes force upon another.
To avoid the state of war, people may organize themselves in society.

Question 39

What is the motivation to leave the state of nature under Locke?

Answer 39

The uncertainty of the state of nature (which may lead to the state of war), leads us to be willing to join a society to preserve our property.

The state provides security:
1. it establishes laws
2. neutral judgment
3. executive power to execute punishments

Question 40

What is property under Locke?

Answer 40

Locke writes: “[…] for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name, property”.

Question 41

What is the extent and bounds of the power of society according to Locke?

Answer 41

The power of society can only extend to the common good: it must preserve everyone’s property.
1. Society must govern by the establishment of laws.
2. These laws are promulgated for the good of the people (property)
3. Taxes must not be raised without the consent of people.
4. The legislative power may not be transfered.

Question 42

What are rights of nature according to Locke?

Answer 42

Property rights
Self-ownership
Workforce and the product of work

Question 43

How is the concept of value discovered according to Ayn Rand?

Answer 43

Value is discovered through discovering what is “good” and “bad”. This was at first done by experiencing sensations of pleasure and pain.

We then were able to retain sensations in the form of perceptions, which were then themselves abstracted into concepts (values).

This process of “thinking” was realized through our reason.

Question 44

What is Ayn Rand’s conception of ethics?

Answer 44

Ethics is a metaphysical objectivity that is necessary for our survival.

Question 45

What is man’s highest moral purpose according to Rand?

Answer 45

To achieve his own happiness.

Question 46

What is the only political principle of Objective Ethics? And what is the corresponding moral purpose of the state

Answer 46

That one may not use force against another.
The state must merely protect men’s rights (against physical violence, pursuit of happiness, property…).

Question 47

What is Skinner’s third conception of liberty?

Answer 47

Skinner proposes a second strand of negative freedom: non-domination.
Unlike mere freedom from constraint, non-domination argues that the mere fact that a person holds arbitrary power (without necessarily exercising it), is sufficient to be unfree.

Question 48

Where does Skinner draw his argument for his third conception of freedom.

Answer 48

Skinner writes about the parliamentarist (opposed to Hobbes in the 17th century), who drew upon Roman law to define slavery as a situation of dominion by another person in order to argue against the King’s authority.

Question 49

What are ways in which the mere knowledge of an arbitrary power may interfere with one’s freedom according to Skinner?

Answer 49

• There are many things one is not free to say in such a situation.
• Ambitions of the subjects to this authority are also smothered, as they are afraid of crossing the authority through their brilliance (long-term psychological effects)

Question 50

What is negative freedom as per Berlin?

Answer 50

Negative freedom is freedom from interference from other human beings. Interference takes the form of coercion when it is deliberate.
Mere incapacity does not constitute a lack of freedom.

Question 51

How does Berlin describe positive freedom?

Answer 51

Positive freedom is the liberty to pursue one’s desired form of life.
1. The essence of human beings is autonomy.
2. The true method of freedom is through critical reason, the understanding of what is necessary and contingent.
3. All men are self-directing, and that is their sole purpose.

Question 52

How does Berlin reconcile freedom and authority?

Answer 52

Berlin argues that rational beings will not want to subject others to their will. As such, a community of rational beings would achieve commonground between freedom and authority.
Additionally, the ends of all men must fit into a pattern, such that any conflict of interest is merely a clash of reasons, where people do not act rationally.

Question 53

What is justice according to Rawls?

Answer 53

Justice is the first virtue of political institutions and it is uncompromising. If laws or systems are deemed unjust, they must be reformed.

Question 54

Why are principles necessary according to Rawls?

Answer 54

People have a common interest in collaborating because it betters our lives. However, there are also conflicts of interests as the outcome of our cooperation is coveted by all.

Principles are thus necessary to determine the way in which outcomes are distributed.

Question 55

What is the original position?

Answer 55

A position of equality, freedom, rationality and risk aversion. In that position, people ignore their future position in society.

Question 56

What is the veil of ignorance?

Answer 56

A situation in which people ignore their place in society, in terms of class position, wealth, social status and so on.

Question 57

How do we arrive at the principles of justice according to Rawls?

Answer 57

Rawls argues for a procedural theory. We must go through the process of going under the veil of ignorance, in order to derive the principles of justice.

Question 58

What are the principles of justice according to Rawls?

Answer 58

1. Greatest equality of rights and duties
2. Social and economic inequalities are acceptable only if:
   a. equality of opportunity
   b. difference principle: the worst off should have the best outcome possible

Question 59

How does Nozick characterise taxation?

Answer 59

Nozick characterises taxation as forced labor. He says that if the government took 20% of our salary, it would be as if we were coerced to work an additional 20%.

Question 60

How can the principles of original acquisition be justified?

Answer 60

1. Property exists today
2. This property was transferred, but at some point it must have been acquired.
3. There must be a principle of original acquisition.

Question 61

What is the sole principle according to Mill?

Answer 61

“The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection”.