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1
Q

what is actualism

A

idea that the laws of nature now also applied in the past

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2
Q

What is different about the Carboniferous Trophic Structure

A

detritivores
occupy the level of
primary consumers

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3
Q

What is Autoecology

A

studying the ecology of the individual
organism

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4
Q

What is Synecology

A

studying the interactions between organisms
and their environment

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5
Q

What is an Ecotone

A

The unique environments that are formed in the transitional
areas between habitats

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6
Q

Is diversity diversity high or low in ecotones

A

low

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7
Q

What are Marsh foraminifera and why are they important

A

highly zoned in salt marsh
Salt marshso can reconstruct paleosea level

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8
Q

how deep is the photic zone

A

~200m but most photosynthesis in top 100m

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9
Q

what is Epifaunal

A

living on the substrate

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10
Q

What in infaunal

A

Living in the substrate

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11
Q

what is vagile

A

capable of locomotion

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12
Q

what is Tiering

A

verticl ecological structure

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13
Q

what is biocoenosis

A

the organisms truly lived
together and interacted while alive

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14
Q

what is thanatocoenosis

A

organisms found together after death and decay

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15
Q

what is taphocoenosis

A

fossils preserved together in a single horizon/locality

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16
Q

what is the fidelity of an assemblage

A

How well the death or fossil assemblage matches the
living assemblage

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17
Q

what were the major morphological changes from the Edicarian to the Ordivician

A

1.Ediacaran Fauna
2. Small Shelly Fauna
3. Cambrian Explosion
4. Great Ordovician biodiversification
5. Nekton Revolution

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18
Q

what is the Ediacaran Biota

A

The oldest assemblage of large
complex organisms
* Soft body, high surface to
volume ratios, radial or
bilateral symmetry

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19
Q

what was the Ediacaran Ecology

A

No infaunal, or pelagic -
Life restricted to the seabed
* Few predators, or
scavengers - food chains
were short, dominated by
suspension and deposit
feeders
* There was tiering of the
benthos (evolution of stalks)

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20
Q

what were the Small Shelly Fauna

A

first evidence of hard skeletonization
* Some thought to be worms, or worm-like
* Some evidence of predation, or scavenging
* likely mobile, and sessile forms

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21
Q

what happened in the Cambrian explosion

A
  • Rapid appearance of new body plans
  • Diversification of Bilateria
  • increased tiering
  • Increase predation, driven by sight
  • Increased biomineralization, nutrient availability and
    defense
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22
Q

what happened in the Great Ordovician Biodiversification

A
  • No new phyla (except Bryzoa)
    extensive radiation, many crown
    groups emerge
  • Evolution of the plankton –
    diversification of acritarchs,
    development of feeding larvae
  • Diversification of predators
    led to “evolutionary arms race” and increasingly complex food webs
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23
Q

what happened in the Nekton Revolution

A

evolution of nektonic forms
Primarily cephalopods and fish
Devonian

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24
Q

what is Liebig’s ‘Law of the Minimum’

A

growth of a plant is dependent on the amount of food stuff which is presented to it in minimum quantity

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25
Q

what is the Law of Limiting Factors

A

Biological or ecological processes that depend on multiple factors are limited by the slowest factor

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26
Q

what is the Law of Tolerance

A

An organism success or survival is dependent on a complex set of conditions with maximum, minimums and optimal ranges of environmental factors

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27
Q

Key limiting factors in marine settings are

A
  • Light
  • Oxygen levels
  • Temperature
  • Salinity
  • Depth
  • Substrate
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28
Q

what is the Carbonate Compensation Depth

A

Limit on the distribution of organisms with carbonate skeletons (Calcite 4-5km, Aragonite 1-2km)

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29
Q

when did porifer Diverged from other metazoans

A

700-800mya

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30
Q

What is the most basal metazoan

A

Porifera - lack differentiated tissues, cellular organization

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31
Q

What are the two major groups of sponges/prorifera

A

Demospongea (common) Hexactinellida (glass sponges)

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32
Q

what is the body of a sponge made of

A

spongin

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33
Q

what is the Skeletal structure made of a sponge made of

A

spicules
calcite or silica

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34
Q

how do sponges feed

A
  1. Pump water through their ostia
  2. Water moved by choanocytes
  3. Food digested by amoeboid cells
  4. Water is expelled from spongocel through the osculum
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35
Q

how do sponges reporduce

A

sexually: spawning
asexually: budding

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36
Q

what is the distribution of sponges

A

global, feshwater and marine
antartica, abyssal plane

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37
Q

sponge ecology

A

some can crawl
some carnivores
some trace fossils (clionia)

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38
Q

what is the oldest fossil sponge

A

~890mya

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39
Q

what do sponges appear in the fossil record

A

cambrain explosion

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40
Q

what is a Stromatoporoid

A

extinct type of porifora
Mound or sheet shape with calcareous skeletons

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41
Q

what was the Stromatoporoid Ecology

A
  • shallow marine, carbonate rocks
  • components of reef systems in the early Phanerozoic
  • Grew together in bioherms, or biostromes
  • Often “hosted” epibiont species
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42
Q

what was Stromatoporoid Morphology

A
  • Densely layered calcite skeletons, most with no spicules
  • Different morphologies reflected the environment: laminar, domical, bulbous
    Upper surface of many have small bumps called mamelons
  • Branching “canals” leading to radiating cracks on the upper
    surface called astrorhizae – likely for expelling water
    “cross hatched” pattern of horizontal laminae, and vertical pillars, squares in between called
    galleries
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43
Q

when did stromatoporids appear

A

cambrian

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44
Q

when did stromatoporids go extinct

A

devonian

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45
Q

what are Archeocyathids

A

extinct group of cup-shaped organisms thought to be poriferans

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46
Q

what was the Archaeocyathid Morphology

A

Cup-shaped, porous walls, no
spicules
* Outer wall, and inner wall, interior space called the intervallum
* Vertical septa that partition the
intervallum
* Holdfast which anchors to the
sediment

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47
Q

what was the Archaeocyathid Ecology

A

Shallow water, marine, tropical
* Filter feed like sponges
* Likely lived at depths of 20-30m
* Formed the first reefs

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48
Q

when did Archaeocyathid appear

A

early cambrain

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49
Q

when did Archaeocyathid disappear

A

late cambrian

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50
Q

what is the least complex metazoan

A

cnidarian

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51
Q

which phyla is radially symmetrical

A

cnidarian

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52
Q

What are the major groups of Cnidarian?

A
  • Hydrozoa (Jelly Fish, Fire Corals)
  • Scyphozoans (moon
    jellies, compass jellies)
  • Anthozoa (sea anemones, sea fans, sea pens, corals)
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53
Q

what are Common Cnidarian Traits

A
  • Carnivorous
  • Stinging cells (cnidoblasts)
  • Live as polyps (sessile or
    attached) or medusae (free
    swimming)
  • Often exist as both during their
    life cycle
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54
Q

what is the general cnidarian body play

A

hydra

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55
Q

what is the enteron

A

the cnidarian single opening, mouth, anus, reproduction

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56
Q

what is the name of the tentacles with stinging cells surrounding mouth of cnidarian

A

nematocysts in
cnidoblasts

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57
Q

describe the cnidarian body

A

Body made of two “walls” endoderm and ectoderm, with
gelatinous substance in between called the mesoglea
* Endoderm folds inward, and septa are secreted

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58
Q

what kind of reporduction do corals have

A

sexual, asexual budding, fragmentation

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59
Q

when are the earliest cnidarians

A

cambrian, possible edicarian

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60
Q

what are the Important coral groups

A
  • Rugosa (extinct)
  • Tabulata (extinct)
  • Scleractinia(extant)
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61
Q

which extinct coral was horn shaped

A

rugosa

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62
Q

what is the arrangment of rugosa coral septa

A

six primary and six secondary
arranged in four quadrants

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63
Q

are rugosa solitary or colonial

A

both

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64
Q

when did rugosa and tabula corals live

A

ordivican to permian

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65
Q

are tabulata coral solitary or colonial

A

colonial

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66
Q

describe the sept of tabulata coral

A

reduced, prominant tabluae

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67
Q

are Scleractinia solitary or colonial

A

both

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68
Q

describe the septa of Scleractinia corals

A

prominent, divisible by 6

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69
Q

when did Scleractinia evolve

A

triassic (to present)

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70
Q

what are Hermatypic corals

A

have symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae

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71
Q

where do Ahermatypic corals live

A

cold water, slow growth

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72
Q

what is the distribution of corals

A

tropical shallow marine

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73
Q

what is the most productive marine ecosystem

A

reef

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74
Q

what are the three types of modern reefs by growth

A

Keep-Up
Catch-Up
Give-Up

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75
Q

what are the main zones in a reef system

A

lagoon, back reef, reef crest, fore reef

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76
Q

what are the three types of modern reefs by layout

A

Fringing Reef.
Barrier Reef.
Atoll.

77
Q

darwin’s theory on three types of reefs

A

subsidence

78
Q

Daly’s alternate reef formation hypothesis

A

glacial control - banks of islands eroded when sea levels lower

79
Q

types of reefs in the carribean

A

bank/barrier
only ~100m from shore
(pacific is 1000s)

80
Q

type of coral in Fore Reef Escarpment

A

storm derived rubble

81
Q

coral in lowermost part of the ‘Reef Crest

82
Q

coral on reef crest

A

mature coral colony

83
Q

corals in back reef

A

coral knob supercolony

84
Q

coral in the lagoon

A

fine mud, coralanous algae

85
Q

groups in lophophorates

A

Brachiopods & Bryzoans (&
Phoronids)

86
Q

are lophophorates protostoma or deuterostoma

A

protostoma

87
Q

what are bryozoans

A

lophophorates, Colonial animals, made of individual zooids

88
Q

what is the key bryzoan morphology

A
  • zooids in a protective covering
  • Skeleton mineralized with calcite (when mineralized called zooecia)
  • Zooids connected by a funiculus which extends along the stolon
  • lophophore
  • u-shaped gut
89
Q

what is a lophophore

A

a feeding structure with tentacles

90
Q

how do bryozoans reproduce

A

sexually and budding

91
Q

describe bryozoan reporduction

A
  • zooids hermaphroditic
  • release sperm into water, capture with lophophore
  • free swimming larvae settles to form new colony
92
Q

what is the bryozoan ecology

A

most sessile, benthic, sublittoral
some freshwater, some vagile, some deepwater
different body shapes in diff env:
branching, fan, dome, palm, fenestrate, bushy

93
Q

when did bryozoans appear

A

ordivician

94
Q

earliest bryozoan

95
Q

what is a brachiopod

A

shelled lophophorate

96
Q

what are the two types of brachiopods

A

articulate and inarticulate

97
Q

how are brachiopods bilatteral symmetrical

A

through the midline of shell, not each side of shell like a bivalve

98
Q

what are the two sides of a brachiopod shell

A

pedicel and brachial
pedical ventral and larger

99
Q

what does an articulate brachiopod have

A

interlocking teeth
cardinal process

100
Q

describe brachiopod feeding

A

Draw water in from sides of shell,
expel through the front
* Lophophore capture food particles,
brought to mouth along the
brachial groove
* lophophore not retractable (unlike bryzoans)
articulate brachiopods have calcareous supports (brachidium)
* u-shaped or curved gut

101
Q

how do brachiopods unclog feeding tentacles

A

brachiopod sneeze

102
Q

describe Brachiopod Reproduction

A
  • release eggs/sperm into the water for external fertilization
  • Some have a “brood chamber” for a developing embryo
  • Have distinct male and female individuals
  • Lingulid larvae swim and filter feed as plankton
103
Q

Brachiopod Ecology

A
  • Suspension feeding benthos
  • anchor to substrate using pedicle,
    filter feed using lophophores
  • Some infaunal and unattached forms
  • Coral-like forms
104
Q

two theories of Brachiopod Origins

A
  • fold hypothesis
  • related to tommotiids
105
Q

brachiopod evolution

A

cambrian
reduced numbers in big extinctions

106
Q

what is the second most diverse animal phylum

107
Q

Major Mollusc groups

A
  • Bivalves
  • Cephalopods
  • Gastropods
  • Polyplacophora (chitons)
  • Scaphopoda (tusk shells)
  • Aplacophora (worm-like)
108
Q

General Mollusc Traits

A
  • unsegmented body
  • mantle, head, foot and visceral mass
  • radula in head
109
Q

Mollusc Reproduction

A
  • some hermaphraditic
  • most sexual, some parthenogenesis
  • internal and external fert.
  • Eggs usually deposited on hard surfaces in jelly or leathery sacks
  • Some parental care
  • Aquatic forms usually develop into free swimming larvae (that can be feeding, or non-feeding)
110
Q

when did molluscs originate

A

cambrian or before

111
Q

what is a Monoplacophorans

A

Single shelled mollusc that inhabit deep water (once
thought extinct)

112
Q

General Bivalve Morphology

A
  • Shells hinged, interlocking
  • dentition
  • Adductor muscles keep shell closed
  • Pallial line is scar where mantle attaches
  • Beak/umbones is the earliest part of the shell to form (growth lines extend out from there)
113
Q

Bivalve Reproduction

A

Most are either male or female, some hermaphroditic
* Most s release sperm/eggs into the water, larvae mature in the plankton (some feeding, some existing on a yolk sac)
* Hermaphroditic forms draw sperm in through siphon, incubate embryos in brood chamber
* Some freshwater bivalves have larvae that must attach to a
living fish host to mature!

114
Q

Bivalve Feeding

A
  • detritovores
  • gills (ctenidia) have been modified into filter-feeding apparatus
  • water-siphon-gills-ctenidia
115
Q

bivalve ecology

A

Intertidal to deep marine, and freshwater. epifaunal or infaunal
* Different morphologies can reflect their different life strategies and ecologies
* Good facies fossils

116
Q

Bivalve evolution

A

cambrian
maybe from Rostroconcha
two vlves but no hinge

117
Q

advantages of bivalves over brachiopods

A

can move
long siphon
increased in size as a result

118
Q

gastropod shell

A

Coiled, conical, aragonite
shells that are closed at the
apex
* Have developed a variety of
shell shapes

119
Q

gastropod reporduction

A

variable, some hermaphrodites
some love darts
some courting with copulatory organ
marine have larvae

120
Q

gastropod feeding

A

Use radula to feed
* Radula pushed outward over
odontophore
* Retracted pulling food particles along with it into the esophagus
* Some carnivorous forms have fewer modified “teeth” that can inject venom (have been known to kill humans)
Can be grazers, scavengers, parasites, or carnivores

121
Q

Gastropod Ecology

A
  • Subclass Pulmatonata have a modified mantle cavity that
    functions as a “lung” for living in terrestrial environments
  • Species in high energy marine environment usually have
    thicker shells
  • Thin shells usually indicate freshwater, or terrestrial forms
122
Q

gastropod evolution

A

cambrian
monoplacophoran-type
ancestor

123
Q

most complex molluscs

A

cephalopod

124
Q

what is a Hyponome

A

modified cephalopod foot for jet propulsion

125
Q

cephalopod groups

A
  • Nautiloidea (polyphyletic)
  • Bactritida (extinct)
  • Nautilus
  • Ammonoidea (extinct)
  • Coleoidea
  • Belemnitida (extinct)
  • Octopoda (octopus)
  • Sepioidea (cuttlefish)
  • Teutoidea (squid)
126
Q

what a nautiloids

A

basel, shelled cephalopods
coiled shell
only living shelled cephalopod

127
Q

Nautilus morphology

A
  • Head, tentacles, foot, and
    hyponome located towards
    aperture (opening at large
    end)
  • Visceral mass at rear of body
    chamber
  • Mantle extends through
    phragmocone as siphuncle
    cord
  • Phragmocone separated by
    septa into gas filled chambers
  • Septa attach to outer shell
    wall at sutures
128
Q

what is Bactritida

A

extinct cephalopods
devonian-triassic
straight shell

129
Q

what are Ammonites

A

extinct cephalopod
devonian - end cretaceous
curved shell - planispiral with chambers
diverse shell types

130
Q

what are Coleoids

A

cephalopods - octopus, squid and cuttlefish

131
Q

what are Belemnites

A

extinct cephalopods
triassic-cretaceous
handle shaped, internal shell
mass accumulation in fossils - ‘battlefields’

132
Q

what is the most diverse phyla of animals

A

arthropods

133
Q

are arthropods protostomes or deuterostomes

A

protostomes

134
Q

what are the main arthropod groups

A
  • Trilobitomorpha (extinct)
  • Chelicerata (Horseshoe crabs, “sea scorpions”,
  • Myriapod (centi and millipedes)
  • Hexapoda (ants, beetles, wasps, dragonflies, etc.)
  • Crustacea (crabs, shrimp, lobsters)
135
Q

What are the common Arthropod Traits

A
  • segmented body
  • compound eyes
  • bilatterally symmetrical
  • segmented/specialized legs
  • exoskeleton of chitin
136
Q

when did arthropods appear

A

cambrian (40% of burgess shale)
trace in edicarian
terrestrial in silurian

137
Q

what are the restrictions to size of arthropods

A

gas exchange
strength of exoskeleton
vulnerability in ecdysis

138
Q

Chelicerata Groups

A
  • Pycnogondia (Sea Spiders)
  • Xiphosura (Horseshoe Crabs)
  • Eurypterids (Sea Scorpions)
  • Arachnids (Scorpions,
    Spiders, Ticks, Mites)
139
Q

what is a Chelicerae

A

pincer appendage before the mouth

140
Q

what are the only marine chelicerates

A

horseshoe crabs and sea spiders

141
Q

Traits of Xiphosura - “Horseshoe Crabs”

A
  • Large convex prosoma (fused head+thorax, cephalothorax)
  • Opsithosoma (abdomen) 10 segments or less
  • Telson (tail) long and spiny
142
Q

Xiphosura Reproduction

A

gather on beach to spawn and lay eggs in sand

143
Q

first confirmed Xiphosura in fossil record

A

ordivician

144
Q

which animal Normally swim upside-down at
a 30 degree angle

A

horseshoe crab

145
Q

what are Eurypterids

A

extinct marine arthropods
ordivician to permian
chelicerid not crustacean
carnivorous
maybe amphibous

146
Q

Eurypterid Morphology

A
  • Body divided into two sections (tagmata) like other Chelicerids
  • The head (prosoma) was covered with a carapace
  • Pre- and postabdomen combined had 12 segments
  • The telson (tail) – telson usually pointed, flattened in some lineages
147
Q

when did trilobites live

A

cambrian to permian

148
Q

three body segments of trilobites

A

Cephalon * Thorax * Pygidium

149
Q

what is a Hypostome

A

mouth (trilobite)

150
Q

Three trilobite eye types

A

Holochroal * Schizochroal * Abathochroal

151
Q

what is volvation

A

rolling up for defense (trilobite)

152
Q

trilobite suture types

A

Proparian, Gonatoparian,
Opisthoparian, Lateral

153
Q

what are Myriapoda

A

arthropods - milli/centipedes

154
Q

when did myriapoda appear

155
Q

what were the first terrestrial animals

156
Q

Crustacean Traits

A
  • Hard crusty carapace
  • Stalked compound eyes
  • Possess mandibles
  • 2 sets of antennae
157
Q

when did crustaceans appear

158
Q

what are Ostracods

A

a small type of calcified crustacean

159
Q

two types of hexapods

A

pterygotes = winged,
apterygotes=wingless

160
Q

Hexapoda Morphology

A
  • Uniramous appendages
  • Pair of mandibles
  • 6 limbs
  • Single pair of antennae
161
Q

when did hexapods appear

162
Q

are echinoderms proterostomes or deuterostomes

A

deuterostomes

163
Q

types of echinoderms

A
  • Crinozoa
    * Crinoidea (crinoids)
  • Blastozoa (extinct)
  • Echinozoa
    * Echinoidea (sea urchins, sand dollars)
    * Holothuroidea (sea
    cucumbers)
  • Asterozoa
    * Asteroidea (starfish
    * Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
164
Q

echinoderm traits

A
  • Pentaradial symmetry
  • Calcite skeletal plates (Mesodermal)
  • Water vascular system (tube
    feet)
165
Q

Echinoderm Reproduction

A

mostly diff sexes
release sperm into water, lunar
some asexual
bilateral symm embryo
planktonic larvae (yolk)

166
Q

when did echinoderms appear

167
Q

Echinoidea key traits

A

sand dollars and sea urchins
Ordovician to present
globular or heart shaped
aristotles lantern
5 genital plates

168
Q

Irregular Echinozoans

A

infaunal
Periproct (anus opening)
migrated to face laterally

169
Q

Asterozoa key traits

A

sea stars and brittle stars
ordivicain to present
detritovores or carniovres
light sensing cells at ends of arms

170
Q

Which asterozoa has no anus

A

brittle star

171
Q

what are Blastozoa

A

extinct echinoderms, no arms
silurian to permian
* Cystoids
* Blastoids
* Eocrinoids

172
Q

what are Crinoidea

A

echinoderma
sea lilies and feather stars

173
Q

crinoid morphology

A

Segmented stem composed of individual ossicles
* Rooted to substrate by a holdfast
* Cup shaped central body called the theca
* Plates at bottom of theca = calyx

174
Q

crinoid feeding

A
  • Suspension filter feeders
  • Eat detritus and plankton,
  • Tube feet put food into the ambulacaral groove, which transport it by cilia to the mouth
  • No stomach, food transported/digested in intestines and expelled out the anus
175
Q

crinoid reporduction

A

Gametes released from pinnules
floating larvae

176
Q

when did crinoids appear

A

ordivician

177
Q

what are Graptolithina

A

diverse group of colonial hemichordates, common in the Paleozoic
* Today represented by only one surviving genus, Rhabdopleura. others extinct by the end of the Carboniferous

178
Q

graptolina traits

A

colonial, individuals are zooids
first zooid in a colony is
called the sicula, while later
zooids are called thecaecolony surrounded by chitin

179
Q

what are Dendroidea

A

sessile Graptolites

180
Q

two types of graptolites

A

sessile and planktonic

181
Q

what are Graptoloidea

A

extinct planktonic graptolites

182
Q

whats importanit about graptolites in fossil record

A

can pinpoint within 10kya

183
Q

groups that originated in the Devonian

A

Hexapods
Ammonites and Bactrida

184
Q

Groups that went extinct in the Devonian

A

Stromatoporid
Graptolite

185
Q

Groups that appeared in the Cambrain

A

Porifera
Cnidarians
Lophophorates
Molluscs
Arthropod
Echinoderms

186
Q

Groups the disappeared in the Permian

A

Trilobites
Blastoids
Eurypterids
Tabulate and Rugosa corals

187
Q

Groups that appeared in the Ordivician

A

Rugosa and Tabulate corals
Bryozan
Xiphosura
Eurypterids
Hexapod
Echinodea

188
Q

Groups that went extinct in the Ordivician

A

Most Graptolites

Animal Behaviour (1 decks)

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