Exam Flashcards
2 types of motivation
- Primary /biological/ innate (food, reproducing, sleep)
- Secondary/psychosocial/learned (status, power, achievement)
Freud’s original drive model + 2 additional needs
- Sex & aggression.
- Relatedness & self-esteem
A modern reconceptualization of drives
Wishes & fears
Operant conditioning
Reward and avoid behaviours. Positive & negative. Internal state plays a role in motivational behaviour
Drive-reduction theory (5 steps)
- Start at homeostasis
- Our biological need increases (thirst, hunger)
- This gives drive to our internal state of tension
- Creates our goal-directed behaviour (taking action)
- Need is satisfied
- Return to homeostatis
Expectancy-value theory
Motivation is a joint function of value & expectancy associated with a goal.
We are more motivated to pursue goals when we highly value them and also believe we are capable to achieve them
Goal setting theory (6 conditions that must be met for job satisfaction)
- Low discrepancy between has/wants
- Specific goals
- Somewhat challenging goals
- Belief in ability to attain goal
- High commitment to goal
- Continuing feedback to gauge progress
Self-determination theory
2 types of motivation (intrinsic & extrinsic)
3 fundamental needs (autonomy, competence & relatedness)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological needs
Safety needs
Belongingness needs
Esteem needs
Self-actualization
ERG theory
A condensed version of Maslow’s HON, used for the workplace.
E - Existence
R - Relatedness
G - Growth
Inclusive fitness
Protecting one’s genes
Primary motives that emerge cross-culturally
Power and love
2 clusters of goals that people mostly pursue
- Relatedness = behaviour that increases connection with others
- Agency = Behaviours directed towards power, competence, autonomy.
Attachment, intimacy & affiliation
Attachment = desire for physical and psychological proximity to another person (comfort and pleasure)
Intimacy = Closeness (self-disclosure, warmth, mutual caring)
Affiliation = Interaction and communication with broader social networks (obtaining support, sharing experiences)
Performance-approach, avoidance and mastery goals
P-approach = motivation to attain something
P-avoid = motivation to avoid failure
M = to increase competence, mastery or skill on a specific task.
An evaluative response to a situation involves (x3)
Physiological arousal
Subjective experience (feelings)
Behavioural or emotional expression
Universal emotions (x5)
- Anger
- Fear
- Happiness
- Sadness
- Disgust
Common sense theory of physiological arousal
I tremble because I am afraid.
Bear = fear = trembling
James-Lange theory
I am trembling so I am afraid
Bear = trembling = fear
Cannon-Bard theory
I simultaneously tremble + feel afraid
bear = brain activity = trembling + fear
Schachter-Singer 2 factory theory of physiological arousal
Emphasized cognitive appraisals.
Appraisal of situation to identify emotion
Cognitively appraise context of situation to label physiological responses as reflecting a particular emotion.
Bear = trembling = cognitive appraisal = fear
Physiological arousal is not tied to specific emotions.
Upper-end of emotional intensity
Lower-end of emotional intensity
- Severe personality disorders, emotions spiral out of control
- Indifferent. No emotional states.
Alexithymia
Inability to recognise one’s on feelings
Which emotion does not fit into a positive or negative affect distinction
Anger
Display rules of expressing emotions
‘appropriate’ ways of expressing emotions based on culture or sub-culture
Reframing and suppressing emotions
Reframing: meaning of event beforehand = less upsetting
Suppressing: emotions after the event = relatively ineffective
Happiness can be described as:
- Living in a democracy (autonomy)
- Culture (individualist happier than collectivist)
- Social connections
- Money - across cultures
Types of love (3)
- Partner love = bond, connection & physical
- Family/friends = non-sexual connection, intimate and committed
- Pets/food/objects
Distinctions of love
Passionate love = A wildly emotional connection, marked by intense physiological arousal and absorption in another person
Compassionate love = deep affection, friendship and emotional intimacy
Stenberg’s triangular theory of love
- Intimacy = closeness, connectedness, bondedness
- Passion = Romance, attraction, sexual consummation
- Commitment = dedication to stay in the relationship
Intimacy + passion = Romantic love
Intimacy + commitment = companionate love
Passion + commitment = fatuous love
Intimacy + passion + commitment = consummate love
Intimacy = liking (how you feel about a close friend)
Commitment = empty love
Passion = Infatuation (just there for the sexual desire)
Sternberg’s theory of love as a story
25 different stories:
“brain falling in love”
Cortisol level = increases
Oxytocin level = increases (women)
Testosterone level in men = decreases
Testosterone levels in women = increases
Serotonin = decreases
Vasopressin for men
4 laws of attraction
- Proximity
- Similarity
- Reciprocity
- Physical attractiveness
Homophily
Contact between similar people occur at a higher rate than among dissimilar people
Matching hypothesis
Picking someone who you think is similar in attractiveness
Ventral striatum
Area of the brain that is activated when you make eye contact with an attractive person (the reward center of the brain)
La Cerra (1994) study
Attractiveness ratings of photos of men and women in various activities (alone, angry at child and happy with child)
Three question study (Clark & Hatfield)
Opposite sex was approached and asked three questions;
1. Go out with me tonight?
2. Come over to my apartment tonight?
3. Go to bed with me tonight?
Coitus and copulation
Coitus = A coming together or uniting
Copulation = sexual intercourse, a joining or coupling
Autoeroticism
Becoming sexually stimulated through internal stimuli
Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) researched?
Transgenderism, homosexuality, fetish
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) researched?
Sexuality on a continuum
Extramarital sex not uncommon
People are more sexually adventurous than expected
Masturbation not physically or psychologically damaging
William Masters & Virginia Johnson researched?
Observed men & women having sex
Studied psychology and physiology of sex
Notable contributions:
Sexual response cycle
Documented sex mechanism (lubrication)
Physiological orgasmic responses
Debunked common myths at the time (masturbation leads to illness)
Sexual response cycle (William Masters & Virginia Johnson)
- Excitement
- Plateau
- Orgasm
- Resolution
2 components of motivation
- What you want to do
- How strongly you want to do it
Freud’s original basic drives
- Self-preservation
- Sex
Changed to aggression after living through world war 1 & 2
The Standardised Wish and Fear List - Perry 1997
A list of 40 wishes and fears, organized according to Erikson’s psychosocial development and used to investigate motives in people with borderline personality disorder and masochistic behaviour
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A series of ambiguous pictures about which participants make up a story. Evidence showed that a number of time someone’s story expresses themes of achievement predicts success.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A series of ambiguous pictures about which participants make up a story. Evidence showed that a number of time someone’s story expresses themes of achievement predicts success.
Travel and achievement, power and affiliation
High in achievement = travel experiences of adventure
High in affiliation = travel experiences based on cultural values
High in power = expensive holidays but good value for money
TAT test versus self-report
TAT = taps into implicit motives
Self-report = taps into explicit motives
Drive theory drives
Primary drive: An innate or biological drive (such as food, water and sex)
Secondary drive: A drive learned through conditioning & modeling (earning a living, play and study)
Incentive: Control much of human behaviour. Stimuli activate drive states rather than eliminate them
Behaviorist versus cognitive view on motivation
Behaviorist: Do not talk about motivation - as they cannot observe it, but refer to our drives as being learned responses to maintain homeostasis
Cognitive: Focus on goals.
Affect versus mood
Affect: Pattern of observable behaviors that express an individual’s emotions
Mood: Longer lasting and more general
PERMA model
P - positive emotion
E - Engagement
R - Relationships
M - Meaning
A - Accomplishments
Health psychology
Understanding psychological influences on how people stay healthy, how people become ill and how they respond when they do get ill
Biopsychosocial model of health
Biological, psychological and social factors. We look at either health-compromising behaviours or health-promoting behaviours
Microbiota
First 3 years are crucial. Adult microbiota development reached around 2-5 years.
Health belief model
Social-cognitive perspective
- Perceived susceptibility
- Perceived severity
- Benefits & barriers to action
- Cues to action: occur in the external environment (campaigns, family members)
Self-efficacy (protection motivation theory - responses to triggers of a potential threat)
Theory of reasoned action
Assumes behaviours are under complete volitional control. Social-cognitive perspective.
Attitudes + subjective norms = behavioural intention = behaviour
Theory of planned behaviour
Created to address some of the limitations of the health belief & theory of reasoned action models. Includes all of the theory of reasoned action + self efficacy (which is called perceived behavioural control)
Transtheoretical model
How an individual progresses through stages.
Precontemplation: May be unaware of the problem, not considering change
Contemplation: Aware of the problem, considering action but not yet committed.
Preparation: Preparing to make change, making small changes.
Action: Actively working on behavioural change
Maintenance: Desired behavioural change is achieved, working to maintain this.
**Going back to old habits is called relapse phase.
Transactional model of stress (Lazarus) - 2 forms of stress appraisal
- Primary appraisal = is a situation stressful, benign, or irrelevant?
- Secondary appraisal = How do I respond to this stress?
Emotional forecasting
Predicting what feelings the situation will produce
Lazaru’s 3 types of stress
- Harm or loss: damage that has already occurred
- Threat: Anticipation of harm or loss
- Challenge: Opportunity for growth (is positive overall)
Acculturative stress
Stress experienced when trying to adapt to a new culture
What is your threat defense system?
Autonomic nervous system
The Holmes-Rahe scale
Measures stress. 4-7 years of stress after loss of a child/spouse
Dying of a broken heart is called?
Takostubo syndrome
General adaption syndrome (Selye)
He injected rats with what he thought was a sex hormone.
3 stages:
1. Alarm: recognition of threat, heightened physiological arousal. Release of adrenaline.
2. Resistance: Stress continues: physiological changes stabilise as coping begins. Heart rate returns to normal but blood glucose levels remain high (for energy). If this stage lasts long enough, you will enter exhaustion.
Exhaustion: Resources are limited, physiological arousal decreases resistance reduced, can lead to collapse.
* Larger stresses means you go through stages quicker
Type-A personality
Strong competitive orientation, impatience & time urgency, anger & hostility. Linked to heart disease.
Type-B persoanlity
Relaxed, patient & easy-going. Heart disease accounts for 40% of deaths.
Cortisol and epinephrine (adrenaline)
Cortisol = affects the inner lining of blood vessels
Epinephrine = causes racing heart & raises blood pressure
Problem-focused coping
Emotion-focused coping
- Dealing with the stressor itself. Efforts to change situation, problem solving. Action-focused.
- Alter thoughts and emotions about the experience. Altering the emotional consequences of the stressor.
Buffering hypothesis
Stress is present but the impact is less because of social support
Direct effect hypothesis
Less stress to start with because of social support
Low-effort syndrome
To exert minimal effort to escape stressful social and economic circumstances. Mostly seen over generations.
What helps regulate stress
Optimism
Trephination
Drilling holes into the skull to release demons
Labelling theory
People take on the label given to them by receiving a diagnosis
Process of diagnosis
Current symptoms
History of symptoms
Impact of symptoms on functioning
Hypothesis testing
Collection of collateral information (looking for concealing symptoms, current mood state)
Psychometric assessment
Following symptom exploration
Quantitative measure of condition
Can provide baseline assessment
Prevalence, incidence, comorbidity
Prevalence: Proportion of people in a defined population who have the condition at a specific point in time
Incidence: Frequency of new cases identified during a specific period of time
Comorbidity: Co-occurrence of disorders.
Somatic symptom and related disorders
Disorders involving prominent physical symptoms. Includes: somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder, factitious disorder.
Elimination disorder
Where body waste is eliminated in an inappropriate manner. Includes: enuresis (urine) and encopresis
Neurocognitive disorders
A reduction of deficit in cognitive functioning. Includes: delirium, Alzheimer’s, dementia, Parkinson’s.
Anxiety disorders
GAD: 6 months.
Etiology:
Biological preparedness (evolutionary).
Neurochemistry: low levels of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric) and low levels of serotonin
Monozygotic twins: 35% chance
Dizygotic twins: 15% chance
Diathesis-stress hypothesis
That psychological disorders result from an interaction between inherent vulnerability and environmental stressors.
Major depressive disorder
Persistent depressive disorder
MDD = Persistent. Symptoms present most of the day, nearly every day, for a minimum of 2 weeks. Often recurrent (high relapse)
PDD = Chronically depressed mood that occurs for most of the day, more days than not and for at least 2 years. May have less serve symptoms. Also called Dysthymia disorder.
Anhedonia
Inability to enjoy things used to be enjoyed.
Mood disorder etiology
Neurochemistry:
Serotonin levels high = mania, low = depression.
Norepinephrine & Noradrenaline; high = mania, low = depression.
Monozygotic twins = 65% chance
Dizygotic twins = 15% chance
Beck’s negative triad
Negative thoughts about:
Self
World
Future
Loosing of associations
A thought process with a lack of connection between ideas. Jumping from one idea to an unrelated one.
Etiology of schizophrenia
Neurochemistry: Excess dopamine. Effects the part of the brain where we process our words.
Monozygotic twins: 48% chance
Dizygotic twins: 17% chance
Sibling: 9% chance
Delusions and associated beliefs from schizophrenia.
Persecution
Reference
Grandeur
Identity
Control
Persecution: Others are spying on them, or trying to harm them
Reference: Objects, events of other people have particular significance to them
Grandeur: They have great power, knowledge or talent
Identity: Someone else, such as Jesus
Control: Their thoughts and behaviours are being controlled by external forces
Personality disorders
An enduring maladaptive pattern of thought, feeling and behaviour. The pattern is inflexible & stable, pervasive across situations.
OCD and 4 types of compulsions
A personality disorder.
1. Checking
2. Contamination
3. Hoarding
4. Intrusive thoughts
Paranoid PD
Borderline PD
Antisocial PD
Narcissistic PD
Paranoid PD: Suspicious, bears grudges
Borderline PD: Instability in relationships, poor sense of identity, poor affect regulation, impulsivity, recurrent suicidal/self-harm
Antisocial PD: Disregard for rights of others, deceitfulness, lack of remorse/empathy, reckless disregard for safety, law violations.
Narcissistic PD: Grandiose, self-important, arrogant, entitled, lacks empathy, envious.
ABC model
Affect, behavioural and cognition.
Affect: Emotional evaluation
Behavioural: Dispositions (we either avoid or approach)
Cognition: Cognitive evaluation
Attitudes vary in 4 things
Valence: (positive or negative) positive impressions typically formed in absence of any negative information. Easily changed in subsequent negative information. Negative impressions formed when there is any sign of negative information.
Strength: based on attitude importance & attitude accessibility
Complexity: Specific or general view - government versus more specific
Accessibility: Implicit or explicit
Attitudinal ambivalence
Attitudinal coherence
Attitudinal ambivalence: The extent to which an attitude object is associated with conflicting feelings
Attitudinal coherence: The extent to which an attitude is internally consistent
Attitude change - YALE model
Source/communicator
Recipient/audience
Message
Channel
Attitude change - YALE model
Source/communicator
Recipient/audience
Message
Channel
Elaboration likelihood model (attitude change)
Central route: Careful processing, issue is important and we have the cognitive capacity to think about it.
Peripheral route: Careful processing does not occur. Attitude change based on persuasive cues. Distracted with low cognitive capability.
Attribution Kelley’s covariation model
The covariation principle: we attribute behaviour to the cause with which it covaries over time. We make person/target/situation attributions based on 3 types of info:
1. Consistency: whether the behaviour varies across time and context
2. Distinctiveness: Whether behaviour varies across targets
3. Consensus: Whether behaviour varies across people
Protection-motivation theory
Fear works best if coupled with information on how to effectively respond. Fear has to be optimal to be most effective (backfires if extreme)
Cognitive dissonance
Essentially a drive-reduction theory
Social cognition
The processes by which people make sense of themselves, others, social interactions
Fundamental attribution error
Also known as the correspondence bias. The tendency to assume that other’s behaviour correspons to their internal state rather than external situations.
Actor-observer bias
Tendency to attribute others behaviour as internal, dispositional qualities rather than external.
Motivational biases
Schemas and attributions are influenced by wishes, needs and goals. (people who are in a relationship seem to perceive the opposite sex as less attractive than those who are single)
Confirmation bias
The tendency to seek out information that confirms one’s hypotheses
Impression formation
The process through which people observe other people, interpret information about them and draw inferences about them & develop mental representations of them. Forms the basis for the way we think, feel and behave towards others. Not objective and not necessarily accurate.
Information formation bias
Order effects - presentation of information
Primacy: Information presented first disproportionately influences impression. Early information acts as a frame of reference for later information.
Recency: Sometimes information presented last has more impact than earlier information, when distracted.
Representative heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event by how much it resembles a prototype/schema. As a result, we sometimes ignore base-rate information.
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event by how quickly or easily instances come to mind
Audience effects
Social facilitation: improvement in performance in the presence of others
Social inhibition: Deterioration in performance. When performing difficult tasks.
Social loafing
Cialdini’s 6 principles underlying compliance
Liking
Authority
Reciprocation
Commitment and consistency (foot-in-the-door technique, low-balling)
Social proof (consensus on how we should behave
Scarcity (gains and losses - apply to my request or you will miss out)
Altruism
Micro: Altruism tendencies and individual differences are considered primary in terms of biological processes.
Macro: Prosocial actions at this level are examined within the context of groups and large organisations, such as volunteering.
Meso: Behaviours of helper-recipient dyads are studied according to specific situations
Ethical hedonism
all behaviour should be designed to increase one’s own pleasure and decrease one’s own pain.
Aversive-arousal reduction model
Helping someone relieves the negative feelings aroused through empathy with a person in distress
Reciprocal altruism
Evolutionary perspective. Kind acts benefits themselves over time
Bystander intervention (3 steps )
- Does the person notice the event?
- Does the person interpret the event as an emergency?
- Does the person take personal responsibility?
Hostile and instrumental aggression
Hostile: elicited by anger
Instrumental: calm, pragmatic aggression
The frustration-aggression hypothesis
When people are frustrated in achieving a goal, they become aggressive
the general aggression model (GAM)
Examines how person and situation input variables influence aggression through cognitions, emotions and the arousal they generate. (an aggressive personality is put in a room with guns)
*People with unstable high self-esteem
the Asch studies
36.8% of the time they chose the wrong line
Two processes of conformity
- Informational influence: conform because we believe others know better than us
- Normative influence: conform because we want others to accept and like us. Usually social groups
Group polarization
Group decisions are rarely in the middle, but usually at one end of the extreme. Overly conservative or overly risky, blame can be shared by the group
group cohesiveness
Whereby people tend to cluster together to be viewed even more favorably by members of their group
Group think
Desire to maintain harmony and cohesiveness. Lack critical analysis of the realities of the situation.
Autokinetic effect (Sheriff, 1936)
Optical illusion - pinpoint of light in a dark room appears to move. Tested alone and then tested in group
Observational learning
Modeling
Social learning
Observational learning: learning by observing others
Modeling: A person tries to reproduce behaviour exhibited by others. Bobo doll.
Social learning: Cognitive-social perspective. Classical or operant
Prac 1
Aim: to investigate the extent to which a range of psychological variables correlate with social media use.
Variables:
Social media, self-compassion, narcissism, body satisfaction, fomo, conscientiousness.
Body satisfaction = -.21
Conscientiousness = -.33
Narcissism = .35
Self-compassion = -.40
Fomo = .55
-.21 to .55
.10 weak
.30 is moderate
.50 is strong
If p > .05 (if it ranges from .051 or above)
Were our hypotheses supported? yes.
Limitations: Correlational - can’t determine causality. Generalizability. Social desirability.
Prac 2
Gender, first language and cognitive abilities.
Abilities were:
Verbal and visuospatial
G-factor
Verbal and visuospatial abilities would be positive correlated
Comparing 2 independent groups - the means represent the average score for each group on the variable. An independent t-test tells you whether these means differ
For a t-test, the p-value tells you whether the difference between the means is significant. The difference between the means is significant if p<.05
Female & male on verbal = not sig
Female & male on visuospatial = sig
English & non on verbal = sig
English & non on visuospatial = not sig
Verbal & visuospatial = sig (meaning g factor)
All were supported except that females > males on verbal .
Limitations: content validity,
Prac 2
Gender, first language and cognitive abilities.
Abilities were:
Verbal and visuospatial
G-factor
Verbal and visuospatial abilities would be positive correlated
Comparing 2 independent groups - the means represent the average score for each group on the variable. An independent t-test tells you whether these means differ
For a t-test, the p-value tells you whether the difference between the means is significant. The difference between the means is significant if p<.05
Prac 3
Based on interpersonal processes
Complete on own
Complete within group
Complete on own
Hypotheses:
time 2 better than time 1
time 3 better than time 1
Independent variables: Groups.
Dependent variable: Error margin (accuracy) and confidence
Between-groups design
Within groups design
Between groups = Prac 2. Participants participate in just one condition
Within-groups = Prac 3. Participants participate in all conditions.
