Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Psychodynamic theory
A
Unconscious. Driven by sex and violence. Analysing speech and dreams. Case study basis, works long-term. To infer underlying wishes, fears and patterns of thought from an individuals conscious, verbalised thought and behaviour. Big focus on childhood.
2
Q
Behaviourism
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Black box analogy. Objective, scientific approach. Environmental stimulus and observable behaviors. Classical and operational conditioning. Focus on experimental research.
3
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Cognitive
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Internal information processing, can be scientifically studied, computer analogy. Descartes. Fills the ‘black box’ that behaviourist believe in, with software.
4
Q
William Wundt
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Founded the first psychological laboratory. Structuralism. Introspection, self-report of conscious experience, thoughts and feelings.
5
Q
William James
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Functionalism. Conscious serves as a function, psychological process to adapt to our environment.
6
Q
Edward Titchner
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Experimentation. Sensations and feelings could not be observed.
7
Q
3 parts of mental processes and behaviour
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Affect, behaviour & cognition
8
Q
4 steps to study psychology
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- Describe
- Explain
- Predict
- Control or change
9
Q
Classical conditioning
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Before conditioning:
Unconditioned stimulus + Unconditioned response.
Neutral stimulus + no response.
After conditioning:
Unconditioned stimulus + Neutral stimulus = unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus + Conditioned response
10
Q
Operant conditioning
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Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
11
Q
Standardised procedure
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Procedure that is the same for all participants, except where variation is introduced to test a hypothesis.
12
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Psychic determinism
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Mental events do not occur by chance but have an underlying cause that can be uncovered by analysis. Psychodynamic theory.
13
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Variables
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Need to be objective, valid and reliable. Predictor and outcome variables. Categorical and continuous.
14
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Researching behaviour
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Describing behaviour: Descriptive
Predicting behaviour: Correlational
Understanding behaviour: Experimental
15
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Correlation research
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Positive and negative. Using correlation coefficient (r), bound between -1 and +1
15
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Hawthorne effect
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The study of whether being observed effects behaviour
16
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Experimental research
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Independent variable & dependent variable (not able to be manipulated).
17
Q
6 steps for conducting experiements
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- Framing a hypothesis = Predicting the relationship among two or more variables
- Operationalizing variables = Converting abstract concepts into testable form
- Developing a standardised procedure = Setting up experimental and control conditions.
- Selecting and assigning participants
- Apply statistical techniques to data = Describing the data and determining the likelihood that differences between the conditions reflect causality or chance
- Drawing conclusions
*cycle leads back to step 1
18
Q
Blind & double blind studies
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Blind = Participants are unaware of study aims
Double blind = Participants and researcher are unaware of study aims.
19
Q
Reliability inter-rater
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When the measure is observable. Using multiple raters, do they independently agree?
20
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Reliability test-retest
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Taking the test twice
21
Q
Reliability alternative forms
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Forms that are written to measure the same variable, measures are meant to be equivalent. Low reliability would show different responses to similar questions.
22
Q
Reliability split half
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One test, which is split into half and administered at the same time. Looking for scores to be similar for both halves of the test.
23
Q
3 types of validity
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- Construct validity: Does this measure what it is supposed to?
- Content validity: Captures all aspects of X. Does attempting math equations capture all aspects of intelligence?
- Criterion validity: Predicts what X should theoretically predict.
24
Experiment versus quasi-experiment
Experiment: The participants are randomly assigned. Manipulation of variables to assess cause and effect.
Quasi-experiment:
25
2 schools of thought about intellgience
1. General intelligence (G) = Underlines all mental capacities
2. Multiple intelligence (Gardner, 1983) = No general intelligence. Intelligence is made up of sub-skills. (Logical/math, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic etc)
26
Thurstone (1938) seven-factor model of intelligence
1. Verbal comprehension
2. Verbal fluency
3. Reasoning
4. Number
5. Memory
6. Spatial visualisation
7. Perception speed
27
Horn & Cattell's GF-GC model of intelligence
GF = Fluid intelligence, performance on culture-free tasks (processing information, drawing inferences, or recognising patterns)
GC = Crystallised intelligence, tasks requiring prior knowledge (Using our store of knowledge such as vocabulary and general world knowledge)
28
Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of intelligence
Gf = fluid intelligence
Gc = crystallized intelligence
Gq = Quantitive knowledge
Grw = Reading & writing ability
Gsm = short-term memory
Glr = long-term storage & retrieval
Gy = General memory and learning
Gv = Visual processing
Gu = Auditory processing
Gs = Processing speed
29
Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence
Three types:
1. Analytical intelligence = Academic, computation problem solving
2. Creative intelligence = Imagination, innovation in novel contexts
3. Practical intelligence = "Street smart"
30
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence (x8)
1. Interpersonal
2. Intrapersonal
3. Bodily/kinesthetic
4. Musical
5. Logical/mathematical
6. Verbal/linguistic
7. Naturalist
8. Visual/spacial
** extra 9th = Existentialist
31
3 x criteria for selecting intelligences
1. Isolated areas of the brain responsible for each type of intelligence
2. Developmental: some intelligences develop more than others
3. Savants/prodigies: Lack of intelligence in areas but excellent in others
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Goleman's 5 domains of emotional intelligence
1. Self-awareness
2. Self-regulation
3. Self-motivation
4. Empathy
5. Handling relationships
33
The Binet-Simon scale (1905)
The aim was to take measurements of the child's intellectual powers, in order to establish whether they were above or below average. They wrote tests for each age group, with the child progressing through age groups until they were unable to complete a test.
34
The Stanford-Binet scale (Terman, 1916)
Introduced measure of IQ in terms of chronological age and a measured mental age.
IQ = Measured age/chronological age * 100
Example: 7 year old who passes year 8 test has an IQ of
8/7*100 = 114
Based on Cattell and Horn's Gf-Gc theory
35
Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale (current version - WAIS-IV, 2008)
Overall IQ is broken down into 4 indices:
Verbal comprehension index (VCI) = Similarities, vocabulary, information, comprehension
Working memory index (WMI) = Digit span, arithmetic, letter-number sequencing
Perceptual reasoning index (PRI) = Block design, matrix reasoning, visual puzzles, picture completion.
Processing speed index (PSI) = Symbol search, coding, cancellation.
*Created to minimise biases
36
Raven's matrices
Provide an unbiased way of estimating IQ and are often used in selection. Measures fluid intelligence.
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6 determinants of intelligence
1. Genetic makeup
2. Genetic & chromosomal abnormalities
3. Prenatal events
4. Post natal events
5. Planned interventions
6. Family studies
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Average correlations between siblings, parents and intelligence
Identical (Monozygotic) = .86
Identical (reared apart) = .75
Fraternal twins (Dizygotic) = .62
Adopted child + biological parent = .31
Adopted child + adoptive parent = .16
39
5 types of creativity
1. Artistic
2. Scientific
3. Everyday
4. Interpersonal
5. Professional
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4 determinants of creativity
1. Intelligence is necessary but not sufficient
2. Years of preparation to develop expertise
3. High levels of intrinsic motivation
4. A 'risk-taking' attitude
* Very influenced by environment not genetics
Twin study correlations
Identical = .61
Fraternal = .50
41
Intelligence tests what type of thinking
Convergent thinking = we want the same anwser
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Creativity tests what type of thinking
Divergent thinking.
Scored in terms of: Fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration
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Falsifiability criterion
When researchers are testing hypotheses, they must frame them in such a way as to allow for them to be proven false.
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Cartesian dualism
The doctrine of dual spheres of mind and body.
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Empiricism
The belief that the path to scientific knowledge is systematic observation, and ideally, experimental observation.
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Humanistic
People experience problems when there is a discrepancy between their self-concept and ideal self.
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Ethology
Study of animal behaviour from a biological and evolutionary perspective.
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Inclusive fitness
The notion that natural selection favors organisms that survive, reproduce and foster the survival and reproduction of their kin
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SQ4R method
Survey, question, read, recite, review & write.
50
Quantitative versus qualitative research
Quantitative research: Using experiments or surveys to gather data that can be statistically analyzed to test particular hypotheses. Usually a larger sample size.
Qualitative research: In-depth analysis of relatively few participants to gather data that provide a richer and deeper understanding of the research topic.
51
Mixed methods
A researcher using both quantitative and qualitative measures.
52
Continuous versus categorical variable
53
Internal versus external validity
Internal: The design itself.
External: findings can be generalised to situations outside or external to the laboratory.
54
2 conditions that consider a test to be biased
1. If systematic differences are found between the mean scores of different groups of people
2. If the test scores make incorrect predictions in real life
55
3 main goals of the scientific approach
1. Description = summarising your data in a way that is understandable
2. Prediction = using the outcome of your research to be able to identify what would happen in the future
3. Understanding = identifying why that why that would happen - the causal factors that led to the results found in your research
56
Demand characteristics
Participants perceptions of the researchers goals influence their responses
57
Descriptive versus inferential statistics
Descriptive = Describing the findings in a way that summarises their essential features
Inferential = Drawing inferences from the sample to the population as a whole.
58
Stratified random sample
Specifies the percentage of people to be drawn from each population category (race, age etc). Proportioned stratified random sampling (Stratified population; psychology n=400, nursing n = 300 would be sample psychology n = 80 & nursing n = 60)
59
7 questions to consider when examining research
1. Does the theoretical framework make sense?
2. Is the sample adequate and appropriate?
3. Are the measures and procedures adequate?
4. Are the data conclusive?
5. Are the broader conclusions warranted?
6. Does the study say anything meaningful?
7. Is the study ethical?
60
Reproducibility Project (Nosek et al., 2015)
A project that tried to replicate studies
61
3 key prinicples that underpin critical thinking
1. Scepticism
2. Objectivity
3. Open-mindedness
62
Fallacies in arguments ( 4 common ones)
1. Straw man = Authors deliberately attacking an opposing argument in order to strengthen their own argument. Authors create a decoy (straw man) that will deliberately be destroyed.
2. Appeals to popularity = The fallacy that a popular and widespread argument is true.
3. Appeals to authority
4. Arguments directed to the person = Authors try to strengthen their own position by attacking the authors of alternative arguments.
63
Post hoc, ergo, propter hoc
Just because one action precedes another does not mean there is a causal link
64
Galton view on intelligence
He was the first to test mental abilities but also he discovered how to express the relationship between two variables using the correlation coefficient.
65
Culture free and culture fair tests
Culture free = IQ test designed that eliminates cultural anomalies
Culture fair = An IQ test that would measure skills and knowledge common across cultures.
66
Psychometric approach to intelligence testing
This approach tries to identify groups of items in a test that correlate highly with one another in order to discover underlying skills or abilities. The primary tool is factor analysis = A statistical procedure for identifying common elements (factors) that underlie performance across a set of tasks.
67
Part of the brain associated with general intelligence (Spearman's 2 factor intelligence theory)
The prefrontal cortex - particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
68
Carroll's three-stratum theory of intelligence
Stratum I = Represents narrow or specialised abilities
Stratum II = Represents broad abilities (incorporating Cattell & Horn's Gf and Gc theory)
Stratum III = Represents a general factor of intelligence involved in complex high-order cognitive processes (encompassing both stratum I & II)
69
Freud's models of personality (5)
- Topographic model (Conscious, preconscious, unconscious)
- Drive model (Driven by sex & aggression)
- Developmental model (Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
- Structural model (ID, ego & superego)
- Defense mechanisms
70
Freud's defence mechanisms
1. Repression
2. Denial
3. Projection
4. Reaction formation
5. Sublimation
6. Rationalisation
7. Displacement
8. Regression
9. Passive agression
71
Analytical psychology
Founder Carl Jung. He examined the role of symbolism in unconscious psychology. "Confrontation with the unconscious". Focus on the relationship between the conscious and unconscious incorporating what is happening in everyday life. The psyche.
72
Jung collective unconscious and archetype concepts
They represent universal, archaic patterns and images (including fantasies, dreams, cultural practices etc) that reside in the unconscious and are actualized once they enter the conscious.
1. The shadow = Situated close to the Ego and personal consciousness. The negative aspects of personality.
2. Anima = Contrasexual (unconscious feminine side of the male)
3. Animus = masculine side of the female
4. Complexes = Refers to clusters of feelings, memories, thoughts & ideas around a core element.
5. Persona = In contrast to complexes, persona represents the aspects of personality that people reveal or hide from others.
73
Object relations theories
Focuses on interpersonal disturbances and the mental processes that underlie the capacity for relatedness to others.
74
Assessing unconscious patterns
Life history methods = Aim to understand the whole person in the context of their life experience.
Projective tests = give participants an ambiguous stimulus and ask them to project meaning onto it (Rorschach inkblot test)
75
Behaviourist approach to personality
People are not driven by inner forces but they are shaped and controlled by external environments
76
Conditions that need to be met for behaviours to happen (Cognitive-social)
1. Encoding = Encode the current situation as relevant to their goals.
2. Personal value & goals = it must have enough personal meaning/value to initiate goal-driven behaviour.
3. Expectancies = the belief that you can perform the actions necessary to produce the outcome
3. Competences = Not just believing that you have the ability but actually having the skills.
4. Regulate ongoing activity in a way that leads towards fulfilling the goal
77
Traits
Are emotional, cognitive and behavioral tendencies that constitute underlying personality dimensions on which individuals vary.
1. Observed tendency to behave in a particular way
2. Is an inferred or hypothesized underlying personality disposition that generate this behavioral tendency
78
Eysenck's trait theory
Super traits = traits = habits = specific behaviours
P = Psychoticism
E = Extroversion
N = Neuroticism
79
BIS and BAS
BIS = Behavioural inhibition system = Structure that is attuned to punishment
BAS = Behavioural approach system = Structure that is attuned to rewards, and lets people to seek out stimulation and arousal
80
The five-factor model
O = Openness
C = Consciousness
E = Extraversion
A = Agreeableness
N = Neuroticism
81
Six-factor HEXACO model (with 4 'facets')
H = Honestly-humility = Sincerity, fairness, greed avoidance, modesty
E = Emotionality = Fearfulness, anxiety, dependence, sentimentality
X = Extraversion = Social self-esteem, social boldness, sociability, liveliness
A = Agreeableness = Forgivingness, gentleness, flexibility, patience
C = Consciousness = Organisation, diligence, perfectionism, prudence
O = Openness to experience = Aesthetic appreciation, inquisitiveness, creativity, unconventionality
82
Heritability of the five-factor model
Openness = largely heritable
Consciousness = minimal heritable
Extraversion = substantial genetic and environmental impact
Agreeableness = minimal heritable
Neuroticism = substantial genetic and environmental impact
83
Freud's approach to culture and personality
Freud reduced culture to personality, seeing cultural phenomena as reflections of individual psychodynamics.
84
The culture pattern approach to culture and personality
Sees culture as an organized set of beliefs, rituals and institutions that shape individuals to fit its patterns.
85
Interactionist approach to culture and personality
Causality as multidirectional with personality, economics and culture mutually influencing one another
