Exam

Question 1

The 3 general research methods

Answer 1

Evaluation: measuring performance/effectiveness, objective indicators or subjective perceptions
Experimental: measures effect of input variables on output, cause and effect
Survey: sampling of individuals –> inferences about population

Question 2

Principles of using survey methods

Answer 2

Theory driven, measuring concepts part of social/economic theories
Purpose: exploration, description, explanation
Issue: accurately translating research goals into questionnaire

Question 3

Quantitative vs. qualitative approaches

Answer 3

Quantitative: objective approach

• Objective: measuring
• Based on large set of data (full or partial)
• Low validity, high reliability
• Less detailed but representative of whole population

Qualitative: subjective approach

• Objective: understanding
• Small data set, based on individuals’ experiences
• High validity, low reliability
• Deeper insight but cannot infer about whole population

Question 4

Measurement issues

Answer 4

Validity: whether research instrument actually measures what is intended

Reliability: whether results are consistent over time, can be replicated, and accurately represents whole population

Question 5

Units of analysis

Answer 5

individuals, groups, organisations

Question 6

Micro- vs. macro level

Answer 6

Micro level: individual level, sample based
Macro level: aggregate level, concerning whole population

Ecological fallacy: macro-level learnings –> individuals
Reductionism: micro-level observations –> population

Question 7

Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

Answer 7

Cross-sectional: point in time observations (short-term, current tendencies)

Longitudinal: repeated observations over period of time; panel (random) or cohort (same birth date/year)

Question 8

Types of scales (non-comparative focus)

Answer 8

Continuous rating: graphic rating scale – place mark on line (with items)

Itemised rating: each item labelled individually – example: Likert scale

Question 9

Scales and measurement levels

Answer 9

nominal, ordinal (rank), interval, ratio

Question 10

Simple measures vs. complex measures

Answer 10

Simple measures: use single indicators; sufficient for direct/indirect observables

Complex measures: use multiple indicators to increase validity/reliability; used for complex concepts/constructs

Question 11

Index vs. scale (in context of complex measures)

Answer 11

Index: frequency, counting indicators, sum of scores assigned to individual variables

Scale: measuring intensity of indicators, recognises that some variables more important/impactful for research problem

Question 12

Probability vs. non-probability sampling

Answer 12

Probability sampling: based on probability theory, random selection, precise representation of population

Non-probability sampling: not random, focus on specific/homogeneous group
Use when “hard to reach” groups, low frequency, no suitable sampling frame

Question 13

Sample frame (and error)

Answer 13

List of population elements from which probability sample is collected

Sampling frame error: variation between actual population and population in database/sampling frame

Question 14

General guidelines for questionnaire construction

Answer 14

• Options/items must be mutually exclusive
• Questions/items should be clear
• Avoid double-barrelled questions (multiple parts in one)
• Avoid negative items/questions
• Use normal, understandable, non-technical language
• Respondents must be competent to answer (assume no specialist knowledge)
• Avoid biased questions (leading questions, social desirability bias)

Question 15

Sources of errors

Answer 15

Sampling errors: sampling bias (selecting individuals easily available), coverage (must be representative), probability of selection (must be equal)

Data collection errors: operationalisation error (translating objective –> question), measurement error (misunderstanding – cognitive process