Exam Flashcards
What is OB?
Field of study focused on understanding attitudes and behaviors in organizations, to improve performance.
Big Five Model of Personality
Every person can be defined according to 5 personality dimensions.
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
- Agreeableness
- Conscientiousness
- Openness to experience
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Each MBTI profile is made up of 4 psychological preferences, each of which is one of a pair. We have a tendency to lean towards one of the characteristics within each pair.
- Extraversion / Introversion
- Sensing / Intuition
- Thinking / Feeling
- Judging / Perceiving
Self - Efficacy
Do i believe I can execute a certain task? How we see ourselves in a specific area
Psy Cap
An individual’s positive state of development.
- Self - Efficacy
- Hope
- Optimism
- Resiliency
Personality Theories
Big Five Model of Personality
Myers - Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Self - Efficacy
Psy Cap
Value Percept Theory of Satisfaction
How someone evaluates their own job satisfaction.
Value Dissatisfaction = (Value Want - Value Have) x Importance
If it is negative it’s good, means you receive more than you want.
Responses to Dissatisfaction
Exit: active destructive
Voice: active constructive
Loyalty: passive constructive
Neglect: passive destructive
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
People are motivated by their desire to satisfy specific needs and those needs are arranged in a hierarchy. Each needs must be satisfied before we can move up (from 1 to 5).
- Physiological needs
- Safety
- Love and belonging
- Esteem
- Self-actualization
Two-Factor Theory
Job satisfaction and employee behavior are influenced by two main factors:
- Hygiene Factors: extrinsic motivation. Things beyond yourself that you are trying to achieve (pay, status, job security, working conditions).
- Motivators: intrinsic motivation. Depends on yourself and your needs (feeling of achievement, meaningful work, recognition).
Expectancy Theory
People will choose certain behaviors over others with the expectation of certain outcomes.
- Expectancy: effort to performance relationship. “If i put a lot of effort, will I perform well?”
- Instrumentality: work to outcome relationship. “If I perform well, will I receive a good outcome?”
- Valence: desirability of various outcomes. “How important is this to me?”
Goal Setting Theory
The amount of effort you put into a project is reflected from the difficulty you think you will have on finishing it.
The more difficult the goal, the higher the motivation, the higher the performance.
Job Characteristics
The task itself is key to employee satisfaction
- Skill Variety
- Task Identity
- Task Significance
- Autonomy
- Feedback
Equity Theory
Motivation is based on our perception of fairness. When the relationship is unfair, people get unmotivated.
Big differences in the Outcomes/Inputs ratio might result in feelings of inequality.
- Distributive Justice: if outcomes are fair. “Was my grade fair?”
- Procedural Justice: if policies and procedures are fair. “Was the grading process fair?”
- Interactional Justice
- Interpersonal Justice: if treatment is fair. “Was I treated fairly in the process?”
- Informational Justice: if information is fairly spread. “Were the rules of the game clear to everybody in the same way?”
Motivation Theories
Content Theories:
- Need Hierarchy Theory
- Two Factor Theory
Process Theories:
- Expectancy Theory (reward)
- Goal Setting Theory (goals)
- Job Characteristics (task)
- Equity Theory (fairness)
Types of Leaders
Formal Leader: formally designated by the organization
Informal Leader: not officially designated by the organization
Types of Leader’s Social Power and Influence
PERSONAL POWER
Referent: Others have a desire for identification & interpersonal attraction Example: admiration, loyalty
Informational or expert: Persuasion through expertise. Target must believe. Information must have importance for target.
ORGANIZATIONAL POWER
Legitimate: Power in formal role. Must be accepted by target.
Reward: Contingent rewards for compliance.
Coercive: Punishment. Causes poor relationships with subordinates.
Leadership vs Management
Leader: innovates, is original, develops, inspires trust, is long-term oriented, asks what and why, challenges the status quo, does the right thing
Manager: administers, imitates, maintains, relies on control, is more short- term oriented, asks how and when, accepts the status quo, does things right
Trait Theory
Defines leaders according to the individual characteristics they have.
Good leaders have certain traits/individual characteristics that are a part of their nature (personality, intelligence and abilities).
Behavior Theories
Specific behaviors distinguish leaders from non-leaders.
A leader is a result of what he/she does; what defines the leader is their behaviors.
Leadership Grid Extension
- Country Club: + concern for people; - concern for production
- Team Leader: + concern for people; + concern for production (IDEAL)
- Impoverishment: - concern for people; - concern for production
- Produce or Perish: - concern for people; + concern for production
- Middle of the road: right balance, but both factions are not completely met (average performance)
Contingency Model
The effectiveness of a leader relates to the interaction of the leader’s traits and behaviors with situational factors - it introduces context.
Situational variables:
- Leader-member relations: relationship with co-workers
- Task structure: how well the task is defined/structured
- Leader’s position power: power position (a lot or no power at all)
Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC): scale that evaluates whether a person is task or relationship oriented.
- High LPC evaluates the other in a positive manner = Relationship-oriented leader
- Low LPC evaluates the other in a negative manner = Task-oriented leader
Normative Model
Model for leaders to make decisions. Participation increases decision acceptance, which in turn increases commitment and effectiveness of action.
Autocratic 1: Leader solves the problem along using information that is readily available to him/her.
Autocratic 2: Leader obtains additional information from group members, then makes decision
alone. Group members may or may not be informed.
Consultative 1: Leader shares problem with group members individually and asks for information and
evaluation. Group members do not meet collectively, and leader makes decision alone.
Consultative 2: Leader shares problem with group members collectively but makes decision alone.
Group Based 2: Leader meets with group to discuss situation. Leader focuses and directs discussion
but does not impose will. Group makes final decision.
Leader-Member Exchange
Leadership is the result of the interaction between supervisor and subordinate.
- In-group: those in the supervisor’s inner circle. They are treated better.
- Out-group: everyone else
SOE: supervisors, organization embodiment: how well the supervisor shares/embodies the value/cares about the same things, etc. as the organization.
The more the supervisor embodies the values of the organization, the better the relationships with employees, the more commitment the employees are.
Transformational Leadership
Leaders with considerable and unusual influence can convince, influence, motivate and inspire followers to do things they would never do alone, with charisma.
Involves motivating followers to do more than expected.
LF: Laissez fair Management by exception passive: only works when it is needed Management by exception active: excessive control of what employees do Contingent Rewards (incentives): purely transactional, nothing relational
4 I’s:
- Idealized influence (charisma): influences the subordinates’ ideas
- Inspiration: acts as a model
- Intellectual stimulation: increase the followers’ focus on problems and to develop new ways of addressing them
- Individual consideration: supporting and developing followers so that they become self-confident and desire to improve their performance
Positive Leadership
Leader is someone that only shows positive characteristics, cares about the needs of employees.
Path Goal Theory
The leadership style that the leader should adopt depends on the skills and characteristics of the employees.
Leadership Theories
Traditional Theories:
- Trait Theory
- Behavior Theory
- Contingency Model
- Normative Model
Modern Theories:
- Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
- Transformational Leadership
- Positive Leadership
Other Theories:
- Path-Goal Theory
Types of Teams
Problem-Solving: small group, together for a set amount of time to discuss and resolve specific issues.
Self-Managed: group of workers who manage their own daily duties under little to no supervision.
Functional: hierarchical group of workers.
Virtual: group in different locations which work together through email, videoconferencing, instant messaging, and other electronic media.
Cross-functional: group of workers from different units with various areas of expertise to work on certain projects.
Stages of Group Development
Forming: get to know each other and understand where they fit
Storming: tension may arise due to clashing personalities
Norming: conflict resolution, start of cohesive work
Performing: teams working as a unit towards goal
Adjourning: leaving of the team
Types of Trust
Cognitive Trust: you trust the leader considering characteristics about him. Ex: ability/skills, benevolence/empathy, integrity/honesty
Affective Trust: you trust the leader considering the relationship you have with him. Ex: being from the same city
Disposition-Base Trust: you trust the leader based on his personality traits.
Types of Commitment
Affective Commitment to the Organization: being emotionally attached and identifying with the organization. “I feel I want to stay” (desire)
Normative Commitment to the Organization: perceived obligation to remain in the organization. “I feel I ought to stay” (obligation)
Continuance Commitment to the Organization: perceived costs associated with leaving the organization. “I feel I have to stay” (need)
Types of Stress
Eustress: moderate levels of stressors that have constructive effects on effort and performance. “Good stress”
Distress: high levels of stressors that have destructive effects on effort and performance. “Bad stress”
Stress as an Exchange/Transaction
What explains our reactions is not just the presence of the stressors, but how we assess, how we appraise the stressor. Assessment of the situation.
- Primary appraisal: assesses the impact for well-being. “Is the event beneficial/harmful?”
- Secondary appraisal: identifies and applies available resources. “Can I cope with the situation?”
Job Demands-Resources Model (JDR)
Ability to cope with a stressor has to do with the combinations of demands and resources involved in dealing with the stressor.
Burnout: - resources, + demands
Work Engagement: + resources, + demands
Boredom: + resources, - demands
Apathy; - resources, - demands
Person-Environment Fit
Characterizes stress as a lack of correspondence between characteristics of the person (abilities, values) and the environment (demands, supplies). This lack of correspondence generates negative outcomes (phycological, behavioral, etc.)
Subjective Fit: what interests you in life? This should be aligned with what we do
The fit being removed is enough to be considered a stressor and to start the stress process. The more you wait, the more the gap between your interests and work increases, the more your stress reaction increases.
Stress Management (Intervention Levels)
Primary - preventive strategies. Prevent the stressors to happen in the workplace. Target: Organization
Secondary - ameliorative strategies. Manage the individual’s reactions to stressors. Target: Individual
Terciary - reactive strategies. Focuses on treating consequences of stress. Target: Individual
Coping Strategies
Problem-focused: strategies focused on managing the problem
- Behavioral methods: working harder, seeking assistance, acquiring more resources
- Cognitive methods: planning and organizing, focusing on job duties, take one step at a time
Emotion-focused: helping deal with the emotions
- Behavioral methods: engaging in non-work activities, seeking support, venting anger
- Cognitive methods: Tell yourself you always come through, escape and detachment, convince yourself work doesn’t matter
Iceberg Metaphor
Idea that when you walk into a new culture, what you see it’s the visible part (behaviors, dress code, language, etc.). If you are part of the culture you understand these, but if you aren’t, you may be confused.
Competing Value Framework
This framework helps us understand the type of organization we are most align with.
Clan: inner looking, flexibility
Hierarchy: inner looking, control
Adhocracy: external looking, flexibility
Market: external looking, control
Note: Each organization may have more than one of these cultures.
Socialization Model
Anticipatory Socialization: learn about the organization and job; form expectations, before you join the organization.
Entry and Assimilation: test expectations against perceived realities. Use of socialization techniques to help new employees to get acquainted with the environment.
Metamorphosis: strengthen work relationships, practice new behaviors. Employee understands where he fits in and adjusts to the dynamics.
Outcomes/Behaviors
Strong vs Weak Cultures
Strong Cultures: majority of employees are aligned with the values of the organization and its culture Therefore, there’s less need for detailed policies and procedures. Everybody is expected to be the same.
Weak Cultures: core values are not embraced or shared by its employees. They are not defined or communicated well. Leads to inconsistent behavior among all. It is an individualistic culture.
Stress Theories
Stress as an Exchange/Transaction
Job Demands-Resources Model (JDR)
Person-Environment Fit
Types of Change
Order of Change:
- First Order – affects specific parts of the organization
- Second Order – changes the basic paradigm of the organization
Change category:
- Planned – result of a structured and intended plan of improving the functioning
- Unplanned – originates outside the organization and to which the organization has to respond
Incremental Change: first order, planned
Transformational: second order, planned
Evolutionary: first order, unplanned
Revolutionary: second order, unplanned
Lewin’s Freeze Model
There is no point in convincing people of change, unless I am able to create the feeling that whatever the people are doing is not working
Unfreezing: providing a rationale for change, by creating guilt and/or anxiety about not changing
Transforming: implement new approaches by providing information that supports proposed changes
Refreezing: lock in new approaches by implementing evaluation systems that track expected behaviors, by creating reward systems that reinforce expected behaviors, and by ensuring that hiring and promotion systems support the new demands.
Lewin’s Action Research Approach
In order to do high quality tailored interventions to change organizations, we need to understand what the current scenario is.
Diagnose Need for Change: gather data, analyze data and decide objectives.
Introduce Intervention: implement the desired rapid or incremental change
Evaluate and Stabilize Change: determine change effectiveness and refreeze new changes
