Exam Flashcards
James and Lange’s theory of emotion
- A bodily reaction occurs followed by the expression of emotion. Ex. thunder -> body jumps -> fear
- James says we cannot experience emotions without bodily reactions.
- Bodily reactions are instinctive and unconscious. However, even voluntary movements such as smiling elicit emotion (not powerful emotion).
- “Coarser” emotions include grief, fear, anger, and hatred. The “subtler” emotions, included “moral, intellectual, and aesthetic feelings”.
Cannons criticisms of Jame’s theory of emotion
- “Total separation of the viscera from the central nervous system does not alter emotional behavior”.
- “The same visceral changes occur in very different emotional states and in non-emotional states”.
- “The viscera are relatively insensitive structures”.
People with high blood pressure (note that anger raises blood pressure) are often totally unaware of their visceral reactions and may need equipment to measure their pressure. - “Visceral changes are too slow to be a source of emotional feeling”.
- “Artificial induction of the visceral changes typical of strong emotions does not produce them”.
Cannon suggested that the thalamus in the brain included a brain centre for the control of emotion (“thalamic processes are a source of affective experience”).
A fact → a reaction in the brain (thalamus) which leads to → emotions
Cannon and Bard’s theory of emotion
Cannon and Bard instead suggested that the experience of emotion was not dependent upon interpreting the body’s physiological reactions. Instead, they believed that the emotion and the physical response occur simultaneously and that one was not dependent upon the other.
Explain the role that the brain and body play in the theories of James and Cannon.
JAMES:
1) Bodily reaction comes first.
2) Gut reactions are the source of emotional experiences.
3) Emotion cannot exist without bodily reactions.
4) Creating the bodily reaction to an emotion will promote that emotion.
CANNON:
1) Brain reaction comes first.
2) Gut reactions are too slow, too common, and too insensitive to be the source of emotional experiences.
3) Emotion can and does exist without gut reactions.
4) Creating the bodily reaction to an emotion will not create that emotion.
What is adaption relating to the theory of evolution
- Adaption refers to a species’ ability to change or become variable in an attempt to survive and continue to reproduce to continue their species.
- Adaptions are genetically based traits that allow the organism to cope well with specific selection pressures, and to survive and reproduce.
What is survival relating to the theory of evolution
Survival is the present need and desire to live and to reproduce. Survival requires the ability of adaption to remain the “fittest”.
Darwin’s three principles of emotion
- “The principle of serviceable associated habits”
- Darwin believed that states of mind had the ability to produce “associated habits”. In other words, there are certain reflexive reactions that accompany emotional states of mind. Darwin also suggested that serviceable habits could be learned by association. The key to Darwin’s serviceable associated habits is that no voluntary thought is required. If associated habits were indeed adaptive (“serviceable” can be read as “adaptive”), Darwin felt that they would become innate and characteristic of the species. Examples of this principle include the turning away of the head in disgust, the jump or startle response, and the attack postures of animals. - “The principle… of antithesis”
- This principle proposes that “for every emotion, there is an equal and opposite emotion.” For Darwin, emotions existed in pairs of opposites (e.g., happy vs. sad), while modes of expression were also contrary (e.g., smile vs. sad face). - “The principle of the direct action of the nervous system”
- Darwin believed that extreme excitation of the nervous system in emotional situations would lead to emotional expressions with much the same inevitability as water runs downhill. This process was entirely involuntary.
Notice that some responses (e.g., the attack posture) maybe both serviceable (principle 1) and communicative or expressive (principle 3). They may also be antithetical to gestures of the opposite emotion (principle 2).
How do emotions help us survive
Darwin’s theory:
- fear is used in order to survive dangerous situations, it steers us away from danger.
- love and affection are used to care for our children and ensure that they survive to continue the human species.
- emotions also help us decide who to be friends with, who to start a romantic relationship with, etc.
Explain the relationship between Ekman’s theory of emotion and Darwin’s theory
Darwin’s principles on emotion outline their adaptiveness with automatic and habitual responses based on our nervous system. Ekman’s work on emotion in facial expressions agrees with those ideas. Ekman states that facial expressions are inherited, built-in, cross-cultural, and automatic. Darwin collected pictures of emotions in animals from the London zoo, his dog, hunter‐gatherer societies he met on his world travels and his own children. He gathered those pictures of facial expressions in his book ‘The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals’ to show the emotion’s evolution from mammals to humans and emotions’ universality Ekman expanded this work by providing a code system to depict and categorize emotions depending on facial muscles usage. The system is now called FACS (Facial Action Coding System of facial feedback theory by Ekman and Friesen). As William James, Paul Ekman build on the idea that without bodily expressions, there would be no emotions
What is FACS
Facial Action Coding System developed by Ekman. It is a method used to measure emotions in the human face. This system uses coded movements of facial muscles (ie: “jaw drop” made possible by the massager’s muscle) to measure emotional expression. The system then created a set of standard facial expressions for the six basic emotions.
What does Ekman mean by facial expressions of emotion are “pancultural and innate”
Ekman believes that we are born with facial expressions hence the term innate. However, not all emotions are expressed when we are born. Emotions develop as we age. For example, blind and seeing children start to smile around the same age.
Ekman also believes that facial expressions are cross-cultural hence the term pancultural. Therefore, facial expressions are universal. Much of Ekman’s early research established the fact that people in many different cultures react in the same way to facial expressions of basic emotions. In Ekman’s theory, the basic emotions are Happiness, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Disgust, and Surprise.
What are emotional appraisals
Appraisals involve the first attraction to, or repulsion from, some object, and they determine whether the emotion is positive or negative.
According to appraisal theory, our interpretation of a situation causes an emotional response that is based on that interpretation. Lazarus distinguished between primary appraisal, which seeks to establish the significance or meaning of an event, and secondary appraisal, which assesses the ability of the individual to cope with the consequences of the event.
Appraisal: Emotions are elicited as a result of our interpretation of a situation.
Two parts of the nervous system
- central nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system
What are the different parts of the central nervous system?
- The brain and spinal cord.
- The brain receives and processes sensory info, initials responses, stores, memories, and generals thoughts on emotions.
- The spinal cord sends signals to and from the brain. and controls reflect activities.
What are the different parts of the peripheral nervous system?
- The motor neurons and sensory neurons
- Motor neurons: CNS to muscles and glands.
- Sensory neurons: sensory organs to CNS
Types of motor neurons
- Somatic nervous system and automatic nervous system.
- Somatic nervous system controls voluntary movements and the automatic nervous system controls involuntary responses.
Parts of the automatic nervous system
Sympathetic division (fight or flight) and parasympathetic division (rest or digest)
Explain the automatic system and its two divisions
Neural signals from the cortex communicate with the limbic system and the hypothalamus, which send signals to clusters of neurons of the autonomic nervous system and target organs, glands, muscles, and blood vessels. These structures in turn send signals back via the autonomic nervous system to the hypothalamus, limbic system, and cortex.
The parasympathetic branch of the system helps with restorative processes, reducing heart rate and blood pressure and directing inner resources to digestive processes. The sympathetic branch increases heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output and shuts down digestive processes to help the individual to engage in physically demanding actions. These two branches control processes such as digestion, blood flow, and body temperature, as well as behaviours with direct relevance to emotion, including defensive behaviour, sexual behaviour, and aggression.
What happens to the body when the sympathetic nervous system is activated.
It increases heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output. It produces vasoconstriction in most veins and arteries. It shuts down digestive processes, which is why it can be hard to eat when experiencing great stress. It is associated with contractions in the reproductive organs that are part of orgasm. The sympathetic system leads to the contraction of the piloerector muscles that surround the hairs on the arms, neck, and back, which helps with thermoregulation and is involved in emotional responses that involve goosebumps. And it increases many processes that provide energy for the body, including glycogenolysis and the freeing of fatty acids in the bloodstream. At the same time, the sympathetic system reduces the activity of natural killer cells, which are involved in immune responses. This may account for chronic stress-producing poor health outcomes. Given these effects, many have argued that the sympathetic system helps prepare the body for fight-or-flight responses.
Explain how hormones work, and relate the actions of adrenaline to emotion.
The endocrine system consists of a network of glands that secrets chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream to control various states of the body. Those states will include growth and development, reproduction, homeostasis, metabolism and response to stimuli.
Emotion essentially is a response to stimuli. The neuroendocrine system is the combined action between a nervous and endocrine system that will explain the adrenalin action in emotion better. The nervous system will react to the stimuli with its autonomic division, where dangers in fear or anxiety will activate the sympathetic system, and the parasympathetic system will respond to less active emotional forms like sadness. The hypothalamus will connect both systems by sending signals to the sympathetic branch and the endocrine system.
When the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system, it will also send a signal to the ‘main’ gland, a pituitary gland that will send a message to the adrenal glands. Those glands are located on top of each kidney and complete the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal (HPA) axis. Adrenal glands have two portions: the cortex will release corticosteroid hormones (long-term stress-related hormones), and the medulla to produce epinephrine (adrenaline) for an immediate response.
Specifically, adrenalin regulates metabolism and blood pressure.
The limbic system
The brain region responsible for humans feeling and expressing emotions is called the limbic system. It is located like a physical border between the hypothalamus and the cerebrum.
There are five functions of the limbic brain. The five F’s are feeding, forgetting, fighting, family (maternity and reproduction), fornication as sexual arousal
The main structures of the limbic system are the hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus.
The function of the amygdala in the limbic system
The amygdala helps to regulate emotions and colour memories with emotions. controls rage, panic, ecstasy and less intense expressions like anger, fear and joy
The functions of the hypothalamus in the limbic system
Hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system with eating, sleeping, sexual behaviour, body temperature and other vital automatic functions.
The function of the thalamus in the limbic system
Thalamus is a relay station that will send the received emotional information to other brain parts.
The function of the hippocampus in the limbic system
Hippocampus forms short and long-term memories, learning, recognition of novelty, and recollection of spacial relationships.
Maclean’s theory of the three-part (triune) brain.
- the reptilian brain
- the limbic brain (mammal)
- the neocortex brain (human)
The reptilian brain
The reptilian brain, the oldest of the three, controls the body’s vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, body temperature and balance. Our reptilian brain includes the main structures found in a reptile’s brain: the brainstem and the cerebellum. The reptilian brain is reliable but tends to be somewhat rigid and compulsive.
The limbic brain
The limbic brain emerged in the first mammals. It can record memories of behaviours that produced agreeable and disagreeable experiences, so it is responsible for what are called emotions in human beings. The main structures of the limbic brain are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus. The limbic brain is the seat of the value judgments that we make, often unconsciously, that exert such a strong influence on our behaviour.
The neocortex brain
The neocortex first assumed importance in primates and culminated in the human brain with its two large cerebral hemispheres that play such a dominant role. These hemispheres have been responsible for the development of human language, abstract thought, imagination, and consciousness. The neocortex is flexible and has almost infinite learning abilities. The neocortex is also what has enabled human cultures to develop.
The role of the amygdala in controlling emotion
- The amygdala is located in the medial aspects (inside) of the temporal lobe (in the part of the brain just above our ears).
- The amygdala has been known to influence many different emotional actions and reactions.
- The amygdala detects “biologically significant events” and orchestrates reactions to them.
- Although small, the amygdala has numerous sub-parts (called nuclei or nuclear divisions) which are identifiable by the techniques of histology (cell makeup) and other measures. Close to 30 such sub-parts are identified in the article.
- Divisions and subdivisions of the amygdala communicate with one another through neural pathways.
- Communication is reciprocal (messages travel backwards and forwards).
- Incoming information is distributed to several subparts of the amygdala simultaneously (in parallel). Each of these subparts may be receiving information from other parts of the brain as well.
- Eventually, information enters the “output regions,” or the amygdala, where appropriate behavioural responses are elicited.
One can think of the amygdala as one region in which primary appraisals, or automatic evaluation of events in relation to goals, occur. In other words, the amygdala seems to be responsible for assigning emotional significance to events.
What’s the “reward circuit” of the brain?
The brain’s reward circuit refers to several structures and pathways activated when we experience pleasure. Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter of this circuit. It is activated in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and travels to the nucleus accumbens via a mesolimbic pathway (Guy-Evans, 2021). From VTA, dopamine goes to the amygdala to evaluate pleasure, the hippocampus to remember how and where pleasure was, and the prefrontal cortex to focus on the experience. Dopamine relates to enthusiasm, motivation, goal-oriented actions of seeking, affiliation, nursing, and sexual behaviour. It is our wanting.
Essentially dopamine is the reward understanding, and it creates that circle of reward pathways to be wanted, remembered and followed. But the reward enjoyment of itself is our experience of opiates’ effects on our brain. Opiates are our liking. Where dopamine pushes you to act, opiates will make you sit and enjoy.
Note: When you continually activate this reward circuit, each time dopamine is released, another neurotransmitter called serotonin (role in satiation/contentment) is decreased. This is why drugs that increase dopamine release (stimulants like cocaine) require more and more for the experience to continue to feel pleasurable (because of the decrease in serotonin).
Explain what role the prefrontal cortex plays in emotion.
the prefrontal cortex is responsible for emotion regulation: it is receiving signals from basic emotion-processing regions of the brain—the amygdala, as well as the nucleus accumbens—and represents those signals in ways that allow the individual to consider possible courses of action. This is central to emotion regulation, which refers to the different ways in which we modify our emotional responses once they are underway, in ways that fit the demands of the current social context.
Dorsal prefontal cortex
the region involved in selecting what to focus attention on, as well as reappraisal and refocusing attention elsewhere
Medial prefrontal cortex
involved in self-representation (third-person perspective) which involves observing oneself from an outside perspective
Anterior cingulate cortex
responsible for empathy and empathetic response. It is involved in reading other mental states and feeling/being able to relate/mimic similarly. It allows us to ensure others we know how they feel.
How is serotonin related to emotions
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in feelings of contentment, which with adequate levels in the brain, results in confidence and feel at ease. When there is not enough serotonin you will likely feel depressed, if there is too much serotonin this will result in serotonin syndrome.
How is dopamine related to emotions
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in pleasure/reward/accomplishment, when released makes you feel things like pleasure, joy, and pride. When there are low levels of dopamine you will likely feel anxious.
Describe the ways in which stress influences the body, and highlight their similarity to the ways in which emotion influences the body
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation results in the release of cortisol (stress hormone).
- HPA axis (fight or flight) activation results in physiological impacts such as heart rate acceleration, pupil dilation, muscle tension, increased blood flow to muscle groups, as well as ceasing/decreasing functioning in other areas not pertinent to survival at that moment.
- Stress (release of cortisol) in the short term helps performance (in fight or flight mode) activated by the HPA axis, but long term leads to wear and tear on the body physically and/or mentally.
- Chronic stress emotions=extended high cortisol levels. When cortisol levels remain high for a period of time, this weakens the immune system and continues to wear and tear on the body (ie. increase heart rate/ or blood pressure for example)
What are categorical models of emotion
The categorical model suggests that emotions are discrete and qualitatively different from one another. It also implies that our emotional apparatus produces emotion in terms of prepackaged systems and that there is one system for each emotion.
Examples of theories that suggest that emotions are categorical are Darwin’s theory with its preprogrammed routes for neural energy; Ekman’s theory with its six basic facial expressions; and Plutchik’s theory with its eight basic adaptive emotions.
What are dimensional models of emotions
The dimensional model suggests that emotions are different from one another only as a matter of degree. The difference is quantitative, not qualitative. All emotions may be expressed as a combination of some basic dimensions (such as E and A). In dimensional theories, the difference between anger and happiness is a difference between E (anger is less pleasant) and A (anger is more active).
Examples of theories that suggest that emotions are dimensional are Osgood’s theory of semantic meaning, Russell’s theory of the dimensionality of emotion, and Whissell’s theory. Plutchik’s theory hinted at dimensionality by placing similar emotions next to each other in a circle and different emotions opposite to each other
Plutchik’s integrative theory of emotion
1) Plutchik accepted all of Darwin’s evolutionary principles: emotions were adaptive, innate, and antithetical. 2) The 8 basic emotions of Plutchik’s model, expressed as antithetical pairs, are anger-fear, happiness-sadness, trust-disgust, and boldness-surprise. 3) Plutchik mentioned that more complex emotions may be created by mixing the eight different basic emotions. According to psychoevolutionary theory, it is easy to produce a “mix” of emotions that are close to each other because of their similarity and difficult to produce a mix of opposite emotions because of their antithesis. 4) Each of the eight basic emotions can be expressed at different levels of intensity. For example, disgust at a weak intensity is boredom. Then, there is disgust itself, and at a very strong intensity, it is loathing. The more intense emotions are, the easier it is to distinguish one from the other and the harder it becomes to mix opposites. Weak emotions, however, are indistinct. And, if you are feeling a very weak form of sadness, it is possible to mix this emotion with a very weak form of joy because the expression of each is minimal.
Explain the role that the theory of evolution plays in Plutchik’s theory
Plutchik accepted all of Darwin’s evolutionary principles. He held that emotions were adaptive, innate, and antithetical. In other words, Plutchik’s theory posits that emotions are useful and help animals survive (or we would not have them); that we are born with an innate emotional apparatus that we share with all others of our species, and that emotions come in pairs of opposites.
Robert Plutchik claims that there are eight basic emotions, each one is an adaptation, and all eight are found in all organisms. According to Plutchik, emotions are similar to traits such as DNA or lungs in air-breathing animals—traits that are so important that they arose once and have been conserved ever since. In the case of the emotions, which he calls “basic adaptations needed by all organisms in the struggle for individual survival”.The eight adaptations are incorporation, rejection, destruction, protection, reproduction, reintegration, orientation, and exploration.
The cone model that describes Plutchik’s theory
Plutchik created a wheel of emotions on a classical colour wheel. Today it is known as a ‘Plutchik Wheel.’ It provides an excellent tool for recognizing and working with emotions simply and effectively visualizing their relations.
The Plutchik wheel will show the opposite emotions on the top flat surface and display the intensity of those emotions in a cone going downward.
Other emotion wheels will provide different ways of identifying emotions. People who find to see more options of emotional words might prefer working with The Junto wheel, which is based on Plutchik’s wheel.
Another type of emotion wheel will be the Geneva Emotion Wheel. It divides emotions not as opposites but into four domains: how pleasant or unpleasant they are and how much control we have over them
Osgood’s approach of measuring meaning with the semantic differential
Osgood believes emotion is an important part of meaning. He designed semantic (meaning) differential charts, allowing people to plot meanings of words, similar backgrounds and interests plotted words similarly (words have connotations for cultures or subcultures). The semantic differential five-point scale has the opposite adjectives on each end. Osgood believed there were only three important dimensions underlying all semantic differential ratings: EPA. The evaluation reflects the pleasantness or desirability of the word. Potency reflects the strength or power of the word. Activation reflects the arousal of the word or concept.
Connotative meaning
the personal and subjective meaning of a word includes EPA.
Denotative meaning
the dictionary definition or objective meaning of a word.
