Exam Flashcards
Chapter 1
Concepts of ecology, communities & populations
Chapter 2
Intro to wildlife
Chapter 3
Overview and case studies
Chapter 4
Intro to habitat
Chapter 5
Intro to landscapes
Chapter 6
Habitat in landscapes
Chapter 7
Landscape ecology for wildlife management
Chapter 8
Habitat selection
Is wildlife management easy or hard?
It is easy because it’s stuff we understand, but it’s hard because there are so many sp so you need to keep learning
Ecology
Relationship between organisms and their abiotic and biotic environment
Aspects of Abiotic Environment
Solids, humidity, light, climate, gases, liquids, pH
Dynamic Abiotic Environment
Modified by organisms. Ex: birch trees grow, make shade, shade lets maple trees grow.
Aspects of Biotic Environment
Plants, animals, bacteria, viruses
Interspecific
Relationship between species
Intraspecific
Relationship between individuals of the same species
Individuals
Individual variation, one single animal
Conspecifics
Members of the same species
Competitors
Individuals competing for the same resources
Collaborators
Individuals working together in a short-term period
Partners
Individuals working together in a long-term period, no reproduction involved
Mates
Long term period of working together, but reproduction is also involved
Spatial Scales
Individual, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, biosphere
Organismal Scales
Individual, population, communit
Ermine Marten and Fishers
Live together but hate each other so they affect each other’s populations. They need so much space that is it hard to see the entire population.
Population
Group of individuals of the same species living and reproducing in a given location and time
How do infraspecific relations affect population ecology?
Infraspecific relations > natality and mortality factors > natality and mortality rates > abundance > population ecology
What happens to mortality if density is too high?
Population may crash
Cohesion
Animals of the same species are friends, help each other, get along
Cohesive Species
Orca pods, meerkat colonies, elephants, penguins
Antagonism
Animals of the same species that work alone and are each other’s enemies
Antagonistic Species
Kangaroos, hippos, rams, weasels, some male dogs
Community
All plant and animal species living in a given place and time
Community ecology
Study of interspecific (short-term) interactions and their short to long term consequences on specific demographies, and dynamics of community composition
What population collapsed due to overfishing?
Cod
Succession Dynamics
(Forest) community composition changes over time. Grass > shrubs > trees for example.
Ecosystem Components
Biotic and abiotic
Ecosystem Ecology
Study of biotic and abiotic energy and matter flux/transfers. Studies everything, even pollution.
Aspects of Landscapes
Spatial organization, habitat, matrix, corridors, barriers, habitat amount, habitat fragmentation, gene flow, population sustainability
Habitat Configuration
Important to consider in landscapes. Cluster vs long row of trees for example.
Landscape
Multiple ecosystems
Landscape Ecology
Study of habitat configuration and its effect on a given population
What do moose eat?
Stripe maple in winter and sodium-rich aquatic plants in summer
Are roads and ecological filter or barrier?
It depends on the species. Some travel along roads. Some use it as a corridor or a habitat, like elk, but some are stopped or killed.
Spatial Scale Variation
Varies with the size of an organism and how far it moves and what it uses
Biomes
Global scale biological units with distinctive climate, vegetation, and fauna
Biomes of the World
Tundra, coniferous forest, temperate deciduous forest, montane forest, mixed hardwood, Mediterranean scrubland, tropical forests, semidesert, tropical Savana, desert, grassland, eucalyptus woodland
Biosphere
Atmospheric layer occupied by living organisms
Hierarchy of Ecological Units
Biosphere > biome > landscape > ecosystem > community > population > individual
Neutralism Effects
0 animal/0 human
Mutualism Effects
+ animal/+human
Commensalism Effects
+ animal/0 human. Good until overabundance when resources become limited.
Competition Effects
- anima/- human
Amensalism Effects
- animal/0 human
Parasitism/Parasitoidism Effects
+ animal or parasite/-human or animal
Predation Effects
+ predator/- prey
How does our presence affect the survival of animals?
Benefit some, but not others
Competition
Between different species when resources are limited
Commensalism
Mice living in human homes for example. Benefitting from us without having an effect on us until overabundance.
Aspects of Population Ecology
Population properties, fitness, theoretical growth, logistic growth, population control
Why do we need population control?
Too much of one species is not good
Population
Group of conspecifics living and reproducing in a given location
Metapopulations
Flow of individuals between neighbouring populations
Multi-scale of Habitats
Geographic, local, territorial, individual
Colony
A few hundred to a few thousand individuals
Spatial Organization of Individuals
You want to think of how a species is distributed when managing them
Uniform Spacing
Equal spacing between individuals
Random Spacing
Random spacing between individuals
Aggregate Spacing
Clumping of individuals
Brown Bear Spacing
Solitary and antisocial. Only repopulate with each other at boundaries.
Bird Spacing
Must space out evenly in colonies and stay a wingspan apart from each other when flying
Prairie Dog and Meerkat Spacing
Aggregate and make colonies
Dilution Effect
Increases chances of survival in herds/colonies/etc.
Density
Number of individuals per unit of distance/surface/volume
When would you use density of distance?
Linear habitats, like a mink following a stream
When would you use density of surface?
Prairies, most mammals and birds
When would you use density of volume?
To measure fish in a lake
How big is a trapline?
100 km2
Ecological Density
Number of individuals per unit habitat (includes the entire habitat area)
Effect of distribution on reliability of density estimation
Knowing the distribution will change the quality of population estimation. Uniform is very predictable, random can go either way, aggregate is not predictable (could be 32 in one unit and 0 in another)
Why are population estimates used?
The real numbers are hardly ever known. Animals move and it’s hard to keep track of them.
Unimodal Migration
Migration in one direction only. Salmon come to creeks from open water to spawn.
Observation of Salmon Migration
They make a path for migration with a window for observation (ladder), and count/observe
Aspects of Abundance
Fitness, demography, theoretical growth, logistic growth, population control
Fitness
Each individual’s capacity (skills) to survive and reproduce in a particular set of conditions
Demography
Statistical analyses of population properties and spatio-temporal trends. Number of births, adults, and deaths.
Population Cycles of Snowshoe Hare
Cyclical. Stable 3 weeks with food and will reproduce a lot. Fathers may even reproduce with daughters. Population booms to carrying capacity and then crashes.
Population Cycles of Brown Lemming
3-4 year cycles. Arctic fox loves them and may even migrate for them, causing a massive population displacement. Then they basically go extinct like the arctic fox cleared out a grocery store.
What contributes to population extinctions?
Natural processes, extinction probabilities, anthropogenic pressure
Human Impacts
Destruction of habitats, introduction of predators, introduction of parasites, over-exploitation, harassment, persecution, interference
What groups are vertebrates?
Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
Important Groups of Fishes
Lampreys, rays/sharks, sturgeons, modern fishes
Order Cyclostomata
Lampreys
Subclass Elasmobranchs
Rays/Sharks
Suborder Chondrostei
Sturgeons
Suborder Neopterygii
Modern Fishes
Tragedy of the Commons
One doesn’t make a difference but if everyone is hunting the animal collectively it all disappears. Sharks and cutting down trees.
What affects shark management?
Solitary animals so mostly monitoring. Tragedy of the commons.
Shark Persecution
Tragedy of the commons. Persecution increased after Jaws came out and people had to be convinced that sharks weren’t just human killers.
Public Opinion
What others think of a species affects their survival, persecution, protection, and management
Bony Fishes
Sturgeons, eels, herring, anchovy, carps, minnows, catfish, salmons, pikes, tuna, cods, seahorses, perches, mackerel
Sturgeon Lifespan
100-150 years
Eel, Lamprey, and Salmon Eggs
Lamprey and salmon are anadromous. Eel is catadromous.
Anadromous
Leave salt water to lay eggs in fresh water and then return. Lamprey and salmon.
Catadromous
Leave fresh water to lay eggs in salt water and then return. Eels.
Herring & Anchovy Management
Fisheries
Carp Management
Breeding carps in Europe for fancy food
Catfish Management
No known issues
Salmon Management
Desirable, fishing, overharvest in Lake Huron ecotourism, spawning, dams as a barrier for migration
Chondrostei
Sturgeons
Anguilliformes
Eels
Clupiformes
Herring, anchovy
Cypriniformes
Carps, minnows
Siluriformes
Catfish
Salmoniformes
Salmon
Esociformes
Pikes
Neoteleostei
Modern fishes (neo=new) like tuna, cod, seahorse, perch, mackerel. All kinds of shapes so don’t know what to expect.
Tuna Management
Fisheries
Seahorses as Stallers
Grabs anything it can to stop
Cod Management
Went to big and raked the bottom off the shore of Newfoundland. Killed their habitat and their food. Overharvested > moratorium. Sent cameras down to investigate. Sentinel. Poaching.
Moratorium of Cod
A hold on harvesting, touching, everything of the salmons off Newfoundland.
Sentinel of Cod
Government officially monitoring cod populations regularly, not just a weigh scale at the year end. Use fishermen for data on collection.
Order Anura
Frogs and toads
Order Urodela
Salamanders
Important Anura Families
Bufonidae, Hylidae, Ranidae
Bufonidae
True toads
Hylidae
Tree frogs
Ranidae
True frogs
Anura and Temperature
These animals may go below freezing point using glycol (an anti freezing agent that prevents them from freezing on the outside) or may go deeper into the mud to not freeze.
Anura and Climate Change
Sensitive to changes, important indicators of climate change
Order Caudata
Salamanders
Caudata Family
Salamandridae
Salamandridae
Newts and salamanders
Salamander Bioindicator
Blue-spotteds are very picky and sensitive with their habitat, so they are bioindicators
Class Reptilia
Reptiles - turtles, lizards, crocodiles
Order Chelonia
Turtles
Order Squamata
Lizards
Order Crocodilians
Crocodiles
Migration of Reptiles
Usually stay put but some migrate, like the sea turtles
Galapagos Tortoise Lifespan
200 Years
Poikolotherm
Cold blooded and can’t control its own body temp, like turtles
Turtles Endangerment
Second most endangered (primates are first). Basically every 2nd species has abundance issues because of out direct and indirect habitat destruction. We have to hope that the egg survivors don’t fall victim to other threats.
Lizard Families
Chameleons, iguanas, wall/true lizards, monitor lizards, skinks
Chameleonidae
Chameleons
Iguanidae
Iguanas
Laceridae
Wall/true lizards
Varanidae
Monitor lizards
Scincidae
Skinks
Monitor Lizard Management
Live on beaches and eat turtle eggs like raccoons. They need to be monitored because we are monitoring turtle eggs.
Snake Groups
Boidae, Viperidae, Colubridae, Elapidae
Croc Families
Caimans/alligators, crocs, gavials
Croc Attacks
Attack humans to defends home, territories, nests, and young, by mistake, or for food. They hide and are snappy and snarly, so they are extremely successful and abundant. The adult is untouchable and they protect their young.
Biggest Killer of Humans in Africa
Nile crocodile. Large communities living on rivers increase chances of interaction
Why are crocs a direct threat to humans?
Because they are highly territorial and will attack to kill when humans interact with them.
Crocs as Pets
Traded as exotic pets and sell easily when young but grow very big and dangerous and expensive so they are abandoned or released.
Crocs in Medicine
Blood contains peptides with antibiotic properties
Bird Management
The cuteness factor plays a huge role in their conservation but they all have a right to live and survive
Galliformes
Chickens and relatives. Food and hunting. A lot of meat for a small head.
Anseriformes
Ducks and relatives. Food and hunting.
Columbiformes
Pigeons. Food and nuisance. Less desirable but a lot of people eat them in other places.
Gruiformes
Rails and cranes. Food, threatened.
Charadriiformes
Waders and relatives. Nuisance. Very diverse but are limited to habitat. Large group of little shore birds
Sphenisciformes
Penguins. Climate change threats.
Accipitriformes
Hawks and relatives. Pollution threats.
Strigiformes
Owls
Falconiformes
Falcons. Pollution threats.
Psittaciformes
Parrots. Pets and trade.
Passeriformes
Passerines. Blackbirds are a nuisance. Ecotourism for song birds. Poaching of song birds.
DDT and Eggs
Makes egg shells really thin
Uses of Birds
Food (eggs and meat), raw material in manufacturing, feathers. Pets. Guano.
Down Coats
Sea birds have thick, well-oiled, and water resistant coats, making them desirable for winter coats.
Guano
Bird excrement harvested for fertilizer.
Birdwatching
An important part of the ecotourism industry
Nuisance Birds
Seagulls, pigeons poop everywhere, starlings are invasive, Canada geese are territorial in cities, sparrows are in cities, woodpeckers are noisy
Canada Geese Management
Populations on the rise as climate change is allowing them to stay over winter. Regarded as pests, attack humans when threatened, and can cause an increase in fecal coliforms at beaches. US gov conducts lethal culls but are protected from hunting outside hunting seasons. Trade is prohibited. Also involved in aircraft strikes.
How are Canada geese protected?
Protected from hunting outside hunting season by US Migratory Bird Treaty Act and Canada’s Migratory Birds Convention Act
Woodpeckers
Drum and make holes in human objects, causing issues.
Marsupials
Opossums, koalas, kangaroos/wallabies/relatives
Didelphidae
Opossums
Phascolarctidae
Koalas
Marsupial Management
Outcompete placental mammals and reproduce a lot, but birth premature babies. A lot of possums are from the south and climate change is allowing them to come north (ON ones from Virginia). They are invasive but commensal like raccoons. They can handle human actives with no issues
Macropodidae
Kangaroos/wallabies/relatives
Kangaroos/wallabies/relatives Management
Lots of species, but taking away their tree habitat. Major road kills. Wallabies are like smaller kangaroos so they may be easier to manage.
Proboscidea
Elephants
Sirenia
Dugong and manatees
Pilosa
Sloths and anteaters. Cute and vulnerable.
Elephant Management
Cute and loved. Very important in management decisions. Very tolerable but also large so may trample crops. Useless meat but have ivory.
Manatee Management
We kill the sea grasses they need to eat with pollution and motors and they kill people.
Primate Management
Most endangered in the world. Complex, social biology. Lots of parental care. Non-repetitive so we don’t tire of watching them try everything. Overexploitation of habitat, persecution, poaching, trade.
Lemur Management
Very primitive/basic so very vulnerable. Overexploitation of habitat.
Orangutan Management
Vulnerable because they are confined to one island.
Rodents
Half of all mammals. Muskrat, beaver, porcupine, rat mouse, marmot
Rodent Management
Commensalism with humans. May eat each other if food is scarce. 30 days to birth and 15 days to independence so overabundance is an issue. Population control in tropics because they’re a nuisance, but more conservation up north.
Chiroptera
Bats
Bat Management
Population control in tropics because they’re a nuisance, but more conservation up north.
Lagomoprpha
Pikas, rabbits, hares
Carnivora
Carnivores
Cetariodactyla
Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises) and even-toes ungulates (pigs, cattle, deer, and giraffes)
Perissodactyla
Odd-toed ungulates (horses, donkeys, zebras, tapirs, and rhinos)
Carnivore Management
Large group with so many species. Domestic cat works very well but larger species need some help. Polar bear habitat loss. Wolves are persecuted due to fear, which is not feasible but a useful form of population control. Lots of issues with bears.
Defaunation
Decline of animals. Driven by human activity. Biomass of wild mammals has declined by 82% since the beginning of human civilization. Vertebrate populations have declined bu 68% since 1970. Overconsumption, human population growth, intensive farming (field and fields and fields of crops), deforestation/habitat destruction, poaching, entanglement in fishing gear. Humans have triggered a 6th mass extinction event.
Species to Become Extinct
Rhino, primates, pangolins, giraffes
Mammal Monitoring Agencies
Convention on Biological Diversity, IUCN
Nuisance Mammals
American opossum, Tasmanian devil, giant red kangaroo, African elephant, brown rat, Canadian beaver, prairie dog, macaques, feral cats, coyote, feral pigs
Threatened Mammals
Numbat, koala, tree kangaroo, African elephant, manatee, 3-toed sloth, ring-tailed lemur, mountain gorilla, pika, agouti, flying fox, caracal, grey whale, white rhino
Wildlife Management
Action taken by humans on nay wildlife in contact and having an interaction with them, recognizing the focus on fish, birds, and mammals. Must be based on the best available science and good data.
Wildlife Management Actions
Can be ecological, legal, educational, or political
Scenarios Requiring Intervention
Desirable but too low in numbers, desirable but too high in numbers, less desirable and too high in numbers, undesirable
Intervention for desirable but too low in numbers
Conservation, habitat rehabilitation, reintroduction, translocations, sustainable harvest
Intervention for desirable but too high in numbers
Limit population and population control. Relocations, sterilization, hunting, trapping, culling.
Intervention for less desirable but too high in numbers
Culling, translocations
Intervention for undesirable
Eradication
Conservation
For desirable species loo low in numbers. WWF, IUCN. Koala, cheetah, whales.
WWF
World Wildlife Fund
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
WWF Stopping Wildlife Crime
Experts in policy, wildlife trade, advocacy, and communications. Innovative ways to combat wildlife crimes, like drones and IR cameras to detect poachers. Teamed up with e-commerce and social media to adopt a standardized wildlife policy framework for online trade.
Policy
Application of science to regulations
WWF Doubling the Number of Tigers
Aims to double world wild tiger population by 2022. Take action in key sites and raise funds to protect landscapes. Protecting one tiger protects 100, 000 ha of forest.
WWF Empower People to Protect Wildlife
Community involvement. Customize WWF work based on local needs and interests.
WWF Closing Asia’s Ivory Markets
Illegal elephant killing for ivory declines pop by 20, 000/yr. Greatest demand for ivory in China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand. WWF is working to shut down illegal markets in Thailand and end legal trade in China.
IUCN Conservation Status Classifications
Extinct, extinct in the wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near-threatened, least concern
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (of wild fauna and flora)
CITES Appendix I
1200 species threatened with extinction. Trade in wild-caught specimens of these species in illegal. Captive-bred animals or cultivated plants of these are considered Appendix II specimens.
CITES Appendix I Species
Red pants, western gorilla, chimpanzee species, tigers, Asiatic lion, leopard, jaguar, cheetah, Asian elephant, dugong, manatee, all rhino species
CITES Appendix II
21, 000 species that are not necessarily threatened with extinction but may become so unless trade is subject to strict regulation. Many hundreds of thousands are traded annually and no import permit is necessary. Includes animals from Appendix I that are bred in captivity for commercial purposes.
CITES Appendix II Species
Great white shark, American black bear, Hartmann’s mountain zebra, green iguana, emperor scorpion, Mertens’ water monitor
CITES Appendix III
170 species listed after one member country has asked other CITES parties for assistance in controlling trade. Not necessarily threatened with extinction globally.
CITES Appendix III Species
2-toed sloth by Costa Rica, sitatunga by Ghana, African civet by Botswana, alligator snapping turtle by the USA
Australian Koala Foundation
Fundraising through adopt a koala, online shop, donations, ecotourism (souvenir shops). Funds for conservation, research, policy, and planning.
AKF’s Stance on Koala Relocation and Culling
“Too many” koalas so government has been culling. Native animals don’t have enough habitat anymore because of land clearing. How can they justify killing when there is not adequate food or shelter for the koalas? AKF believes there are too few trees, not too many koalas.
AKF Research
143 projects in veterinary science, diet, habitat in landscapes, genetics, and more.
Cheetah Conservation Fund
Camera traps, cheetah, companies, conservation, education, events, for kids, illegal pet trade, impact, international collaboration, internship, live at CCF, livestock guarding dogs, outreach, press releases, research, supporters
How can a dog save a cheetah?
CCF livestock guard dogs protect livestock from cheetahs and keep them away, thereby saving them from persecution by farmers
CCF
Cheetah Conservation Fund
MSY
Maximum sustainable yield, bell curve
Sustainable Harvest
Maximum sustainable yield and hunting regulations and quotas
Ontario Hunting Regulations
Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, Migratory Birds Convention Act, Endangered Species Act, Species at Risk Act, Trespass to Property Act, Firearms Act
Ontario Hunting Regulations on Indian Reserves
Permission of the Band Council
Ontario Hunting Regulations on Private Land
Written permission from land owners to hunt
Ontario Hunting Regulations on Wildlife Management Ares (Southern Ontario)
Designated areas with opportunities for hunting
Ontario Hunting Regulations on Crown Game Preserves
Illegal to hunt or trap
Ontario Hunting Regulations on Provincial Parks
Hunting permitted in some
Mandatory Hunter Reporting in Ontario
Helps monitor wildlife populations, set tag quotas and determine the availability of additional tags, make changes to seasons and bag limits, inform management policies
Quota
A limit on how much of the population can be hunted
Furbearers in Eastern Canada
Muskrat, beaver, fox, coyote, wolf, lynx, bobcat, weasel, mink, marten, otter, fisher, wolverine
Why are kill traps used on furbearers?
Humane killing and minimal damage to fur
Traplines in Ontario
A grid of 100 km2 townships. Most trap lines are being used. Each has a specific quota based on carrying capacity and historic record of pelt submissions in previous years.
Fur Season in Ontario
Oct 25-March 15 to allow fur to be prime (fresh after fall molt) and to protect the denning period
Pelt Pricing
Determined by public opinion, not the quality of pelt
23 Groups whose Populations Need to be Controlled
Tasmanian devil, wild boar, seals, armadillos, skunks, foxes, squirrels, snakes, rats, groundhogs, beavers, possums, raccoons, bats, moles, deer, mice, coyotes, bears, ravens, seagulls, woodpeckers, pigeons
Beaver Populations
Plentiful enough to build Montreal and Canada, so must be controlled
Pros and Cons of Coyote Management
Nature lovers/animal rights, people especially want to see them in national parks, nice fur, they eat farm animals, threat to humans
Why is it a problem when coyotes eat farm animals?
Sheep are defenceless. They spend a lot of time outside in large open pastures.
Why are coyotes so prolific?
Work alone and together, live in lots of habitats (farmland/prairie/forest/mountain/suburban/edge/ecotone), found in every ecosystem, not too many ways to deal with the problem other than extraction, stable populations, increasing distribution, tolerate human modification of landscapes
Coyote Management
Widespread species of least concern so only local control. Mostly controlled when interacting with humans.
Coyote Population Density
0.01-2.3 individuals per km2. Not extirpated when low, just not around.
Coyote Trade
Coyote pelt helps to offset management costs and supports local economies. This is a really weak argument because local management can be costly.
Seal Species in Canada
Harbour, ringed, harp, bearded, hooded, grey
Harbour Seals in Canada
Atlantic (Gulf of St. Lawrence-Newfoundland) for cod and Pacific for salmon
Ring Seals in Canada
Small seal all over the arctic. Cultural significant so the focus of conservation up north.
Bearded Seals in Canada
Arctic. Has a beard, not too abundant.
Hooded Seals in Canada
North Atlantic. Has a hood/bladder on forehead to puff up and attract females. Pretty spectacular. Not super abundant, an accessory species because numbers are all in the thousands anyway (millions becomes a problem).
Grey Seals in Canada
Atlantic. Not so much in Canada, more on an island off of Massachusetts. A fairly large population we occasionally see mixed in with harp seals.
Harp Seals in Canada
Larger seal. Super abundant. All around the arctic, spends 9 months in Greenland and then move for reproduction. 2 spots for reproduction on either side of Newfoundland.
Harp Seal Reproduction
Arctic Spring breaks ice floats like a million small icebergs. and the seals go here because they are ideal for whelping. Mothers each pick their own float and stay there and fish for 2-3 weeks during the whelping period. After that there is no ice (too cold before that) and they start barking on the ice and begin to wean.
Harp Seal Management
3 mil seals (1.5 mil females) have 1.5 mil babies within 2-3 weeks. Too many and live in masses in Newfoundland. Ships go out and start culling the pups for about 8 weeks in March and April after the whelping period.
Problems with Harp Seal Management
Pretty traumatic but it is a pretty large population so it would be safe if it weren’t for the cuteness factor of the pups. Only 5.4% are harvested, which is reasonable for MSY, but Newfoundland is probably pushing for population control because some think this is still to many kills.
Harp Seal Population vs Harvest Quota (2020)
7 400 000 population. 400 000 harvest quota. 5.4% harvested.
DFO
Department of Fisheries & Oceans
Decreasing Harp Seal Harvest
Population has tripled since the 70s. Nearly a million seal kills over 3 years. Climate change leads to thinner and more unstable ice so many pups drown. EU banned import of seal products in 2009, and the value of pelts then decreased by 36% in 2010.
Sealing of Pups
Hunt of infant harp seals (whitecoats) and hooded seals (bluebacks) banned in 1987 and now the pups can only be killed once they have started melting when weaning at about 2 weeks old.
Where has Canada sold seal pelts?
Germany, Greenland, China, Hong Kong, Finland, Denmark, France, Greece, South Korea, Russia
Who established a program to look at marten land use in Canada’s Crown land?
Lands for Life
What did Robitaille do for Lands for Life?
Classification of habitat, look at the types, and their effects on martens.
22 Ecosystem Site Types
Name and ID 22 types of ecosystem sites in Ontario’s forests, including observations of plant cover, soil type, water presence, etc.
Types of Ecosystems
Prairies, forests, lakes, running waters, oceans, wetlands, deserts, tundra
Habitat/Ecosystem Specialist
Animal that uses only one ecosystem, but most belong to more than one
Habitat/Ecosystem Generalist
Animal that uses more than one ecosystem
Habitat
The environment in which an animal survives and reproduces. If it isn’t doing both here, it’s only a transitional matrix area and the animal is just passing though.
Prairies
2D, herb cover, fire, plains
Herb Cover in Prairies
grassland, no shrub in prairies, herb dominance
Fire in Prairies
A dominant feature, what keeps it as grasslands and prevents growth and loss of prairie. Natural and anthropogenic.
Forests
3D, lignin, cover, strata, fire
2D vs 3D Habitats
3D has vertical height, like forests, or depth, like lakes. 2D, like deserts, do not.
Lignin in Forests
Protein that gives the trees structure, no height without it
Cover in Forests
Closed from light, sight, muffled sound, etc.
Strata in Forests
Herbaceous strata/layer on ground. Arborous layer on top.
Fire in Forests
Part of a natural regime
Lakes
3D, DOC, strata
DOC in Lakes
Dissolved oxygen content
Running Waters
1D, hydraulics
1D Aspect of Running Waters
Linear, one line. If width expands, you don’t have that movement.
Hydraulics of Running Waters
Adaptation to running water
Oceans
3D, sizes, saltwater
Sizes of Oceans
Depth preferences, differences in productivity, pressure is different at top and bottom so different effects on animals (blob fish), shallow vs deep waters
Saltwater of Oceans
Salinity, water balance, SW will dehydrate FW animals, buoyancy
Wetlands
2D, impracticable
Impracticability of Wetlands
Too much depth but also not enough. Have always been an issue because of smell/decomposition, insects, limited access. Otherwise, they have a lot of biodiversity.
Deserts
2D, dry, sizes
Dryness of Deserts
Can be cold or hot, but very little precipitation. Based on water and rain shadows.
Sizes of Deserts
Deserts don’t come in little patches
Tundra
2D, cold
2D of Tundra
No height or depth really, but animals may dig down because of permafrost
Contrasting Features of Ecosystems
Very superficial features like height/depth, size, and cover
Feature Species of Prairies
Prairie dogs, pronghorn, bison, finches, prairie grouse (make leks), horse
Feature Species of Forests
Mice, flying squirrels (need height), porcupines (love climbing)
Feature Species of Lakes
Lake trout, whitefish, ling
Feature Species of Oceans
Whales, seals, fishes
Feature Species of Wetlands
Long-legged creatures, blue heron
Feature Species of Deserts
Some lizards, snakes, scorpion, camel
Feature Species of Tundra
Muskox, caribou, arctic fox, lemmings
Umbrella Species
Flagship species, capstone species, bioindicator. Overlaps every other species. You could just measure this one species’ minimum patch size and know what else is in that area (shows richness).
Saving Umbrella Species
If you save the umbrella species and its habitat, you save most of the other species in the ecosystem. Correct management of the umbrella species means management for all species in its habitats.
Umbrella Species in Ontario
Blue-spotted salamander and marten
Habitat Suitability Modelling
Method for predicting the suitability of a location for a species or group of species based on their observed relationship with environmental conditions
HSI
Habitat suitability index
Habitat Suitability Index
A numerical index that represents the capacity of a given habitat to support a selected species. Describes the suitability of a given habitat by combining the interactions of all key environmental variables on a species’ vital rates and survival.
Which ecosystems do martens live in?
5a - Black spruce fine soil, 5b - black spruce medium soil, 7a - hardwood fine soil, 7b - hardwood medium soil
Habitats, Patches, and Matrices
All the same types. All patches no matter the size, it’s still a patch. Habitat is where an animals survives and reproduces. Matrix is the transitional area in between habitats where the animal doesn’t survive and reproduce.
How many combinations of habitats/matrices are there?
56
Is there any habitats we don’t have in Ontario?
Just deserts, we have the rest and lots of combinations of these
Why is habitat not simple?
It offers everything, a multitude of resources because they are not the same for every species
Fahrig 2003
Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity
What did Fahrig find in 2003?
There’s so much literature on fragmentation vs biodiversity, but the measures can lead to different conclusions about magnitude (strength of effect) and direction (good or bad), and they do not always distinguish between habitat loss and fragmentation per se. Habitat loss has large negative effects on biodiversity but fragmentation per se has weaker effects that can be positive or negative. Habitat loss and fragmentation must be measured independently.
Fragmentation Variables
Patch size, habitat loss amount, patch isolation, edge, number of patches, structural connectivity, matrix quality, patch shape, quality, patch scale, landscape scale, patch and landscape scales
Biodiversity Variables
Abundance/density, richness/diversity, presence/absence, fitness measures, genetic variability, species interactions, extinction/turnover, individual habitat use, movement/dispersal, population growth
Patch Size as a Fragmentation Variable
Easy, measure patch
Habitat Loss Amount as a Fragmentation Variable
Not simple but works well in short term, may take longer for some species
Patch Isolation as a Fragmentation Variable
Nearest neighbour
Edge as a Fragmentation Variable
A bit complicated to define since it is neither habitat not matrix but the interface/gradual transition between them. Linked to habitat but not a feature of it.
Structural Connectivity as a Fragmentation Variable
A network, see where animals transition and reproduce
Matrix Quality as a Fragmentation Variable
Secondary, more focus on the habitat rather than outside of it, but still interesting
Patch Shape as a Fragmentation Variable
Difficult because so many shapes
Abundance/Density as a Biodiversity Variable
First thing to do, easy, how many are there
Richness/Diversity as a Biodiversity Variable
Need to see all the species at the community level
Presence/Absence as a Biodiversity Variable
What is there and what is not
Genetic Variability as a Biodiversity Variable
Blood samples so more difficult
Species Interactions as a Biodiversity Variable
Monitor interactions between 2 or more species, a little heavier in terms of field work
Extinction/Turnover as a Biodiversity Variable
Have to stick around long enough to see that happen, even longer for long-lived species
Individual Habitat Use as a Biodiversity Variable
Radio collar, etc. to track movement
Movement/Dispersal as a Biodiversity Variable
Radio collar, etc. to track movement
Population Growth as a Biodiversity Variable
Years and decades. Life tables. Depends on lifespan of species.
Fragmentation and Biodiversity Variables
Measurable variable to consider factors of habitats. There are so many ways to fragment so you need to know a lot of measurements.
Effects of Fragmentation with Constant Habitat Amount
Can be negative (decreased habitat quality) or positive (reduced isolation)
WMA
Wildlife management area
Succession with Fire Line
Propagation in one direction from unburned to burned
Succession with Fire Patches
Propagation radiating outwards in all directions from unburned patches to burned surrounding
Satellite Data Providers
NASA, NAIP, European Space Agency. All have different spatial resolutions and take pictures at different time intervals
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NAIP
National agriculture Imagery Program
Lidar Data Sets
Provide fine-resolution digital elevation models and vegetation height
Elevation
Affects different species differently. Different drainage and vegetation.
Non-Vegetated Land Cover
Open water, perennial ice and snow
Developed Land Cover
Developed with open spaces, low intensity, medium intensity, or high intensity development
Agriculture Land Cover
Hay/pasture, cultivated crops
Natural Land Cover
Barren land, forests, shrub, grassland, wetlands
Changing Grain Size of Landscape Patterns
There could be like 20 different land cover types in one area, but it can be simplified using less grain to only show 4.
Ways to Present GIS Landscape Data
Categorical or continuous
Categorical Presentation of GIS Landscape Data
Landscape composition, spatial configuration, connectivity
Continuous Presentation of GIS Landscape Data
Landscape composition, patchiness
Overlaying GIS Layers
Overlaying spatial model variables like elevation, suitable landcover, and suitable hydrology to determine where they all overlap to determine the predicted habitat.
Marginal Habitat
Offers only marginal conditions. Excludes the best areas for the species in the centre of the area.
Edge Types
No edges are exactly the same. Different habitats and different matrices will create different transitional zones.
Different Configurations of the Same Landscape Components
Represent different habitats to different species
Development Intensity
Higher intensity of development = greater negative effects on species within the patch
Cities and Towers
Unfavourable for most animals, even birds (towers get in the way of migration)
MDC
Maximum diameter circle
Maximum Diameter Circle
Largest circle that can fit inside a patch. Indicates the functional size of the patch. Width (or whatever) is the limiting factor.
Circles of Land Cover
Most area with least edge
Solid Patches and Connectivity
The idea is to reduce isolation by creating a physical connection, like a corridor, from a soil isolated patch to another patch. Like the African Wild Dogs)
Krebs et al 2007
Multiscale Habitat Use by Wolverines in BC
Multiscale Habitat Use by Wolverines in BC
Males responded to food availability in summer and spend winters in lowlands where moose live. Females were more complex, taking into account food, predation risk, and human disturbances. They liked quiet alpine and avalanche environments where hoary marmot and Columbia ground squirrels were found in the summer, but they shied away from loaded areas in the summer. They all stayed away from skiing areas of the mountains.
Wolverine Travel Distance
Travel the same 0-30 km each time, even if there is a huge interval in between. Males travel further than females.
AIC
Akaike’s Information Criterion
Delta AIC
Measures error. Higher value = more error.
RSF
Resource selection function
Cozzi et al 2020
African wild dog dispersal and implications for management
African wild dog dispersal and implications for management
African wild dogs are more hindered by medium to high human densities than any natural landscape features. Humans were responsible for over 90% of recorded deaths.
Decker et al 2019
Moving the paradigm from stakeholders to beneficiaries in wildlife management
Strategic habitat conservation for beach mice: estimating management scenario efficiencies
Habitat objectives would be met after 7 years of post-storm management. First restore protected habitats, then unprotected.
Lott et al 2020
Genetic management of captive and reintroduced Billy populations
Moving the paradigm from stakeholders to beneficiaries in wildlife management
Citizen engagement dictates management efforts. We need to shift to a beneficiary orientation to increase public engagement.
Roberts et al 2021
An integrated population model for harvest management of Atlantic brant
Bighorn sheep genetic structure in Wyoming reflects geography and management
Quantify the extent of genetic diversity and estimate degree of gene flow. Clusters reflected a combination of extensive geographic isolation and translocation.
Peterman et al 2018
Using spatial demographic network models to optimize habitat management
Genetic management of captive and reintroduced Billy populations
Genes can be managed in zoos but reintroducing them into the wild will allow more genetic diversity. The issue though is decreasing mortality in the wild.
Johnson 2019
Effects of grassland management on overwintering bird communities
Factors associated with black bear densities and implications for management
More human development = lower black bear density. Higher primary productivity = higher black bear density
Resnik et al 2018
Island fox spatial ecology and implications for management of disease
An integrated population model for harvest management of Atlantic brant
Improve harvest management with stricter hunting regulations and predicting abundance before the annual hunting regulations are set
Evaluating conservation effectiveness in a Tanzanian community wildlife management area
Management leads to higher densities of wild ungulate populations and lower densities of domestic ungulate populations in the WMA. Survival and population growth rate increased with management.
Peterman et al 2018
Using spatial demographic network models to optimize habitat management
Using spatial demographic network models to optimize habitat management
Not many ponds were sources and most were sinks. Pond network is important, including recruitment, dispersal ability, and produced emigrants. New ponds need to be created at optimal locations and those already in optimal locations need to be restored.
Effects of grassland management on overwintering bird communities
More grassland obligate species with decreased vegetation structure. Management timing is critical, must manage at least a year before or leave unmanaged to increase species richness.
Island fox spatial ecology and implications for management of disease
Foxes near roads use those roads to move farther, faster, easier, spreading pathogens further, faster, and easier. Increase width of vaccine firewalls, especially near roads, to catch more island foxes and vaccinate them.
CBNRM
Community-based natural resource management
