Exam 1 Vocab Flashcards
Ablation
brain lesions; usually an accident in humans but can be surgically done on animals
Afferent
“admission,” bringing information into a structure
Aggregation
cells that are migrating align themselves with other cells and form structures
Alzheimer’s Disease
a disorder characterized by progressive brain deterioration and impairment of memory and other mental abilities; the most common form of dementia
Amygdala
small limbic system structure in each of the temporal lobes that seem to be involved in emotion. Also participates in memory formation, especially when negative emotions are involved (fear and anxiety).
Anterior cingulate cortex
a part of the limbic system important in attention, cognitive processing, possibly consciousness and emotion, including the emotion of pain
Anterior
front of head, towards the head
Autonomic nervous system
one of the two branches of the PNS; includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Axon growth and synapse formation
4th phase of neurodevelopment- axons and dendrites begin to grow
Basal Ganglia
Buried deep in the Cerebral Cortex, controls motor functions
Bilateral
occurring in both sides of the brain
Biopsychology
the scientific study of the biology of behavior
Blood-brain barrier
limits passage between the bloodstream and the brain, provides constant protection from toxic substances and from neurotransmitters circulating in the blood.
Brain stem
set of structures ventral to the telencephalon that are necessary for basic functioning (breathing, heart rate, sleep, etc)
Bregma
a point located on the top of the skull often used as a reference point for surgery on the brain.
Caudal
set of structures ventral to the telencephalon that are necessary for basic functioning (breathing, heart rate, sleep, etc)
Cell death and the rearrangement of synapses
this is the 5th phase of neurodevelopment.
Central fissure/sulcus
groove that separates the frontal and parietal; 2 (like a headband).
Central nervous system (CNS)
the part of the nervous system made up of the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebellum
input from the first and second degree motor cortex and brain stem motor muscle, feedback from motor responses, involved in fine-tuning and motor learning
Cerebral cortex
outer surface, which is made up mostly of cell bodies of neurons. (gray matter) Divided into 2 hemispheres, with 4 lobes each
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Fluid in the ventricles and spinal canal that carries material to and from the CNS, also it cushions the brain
Chemoaffinity Hypothesis
describes synapse formation; states that a series of chemical signals attract or repel axons and that these signals are released by glial cells and other axons.
Cognitive neuroscience
studies human cognition (the way we think and solve problems) through an understanding of the brain and nervous system.
Computed Tomography (CAT/CT) scan
series of 2D x-rays used to see the structure of the brain; they are the quickest, least expensive, and most readily available; only found in horizontal view.
Contralateral
on the opposite side
Coronal sections
slicing through the brain from front to back (also frontal sections)
Corpus collosum
tract that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.
Correlational study
a study in which the researcher does not control an independent researcher does not control an independent variable, but determines whether two variables are related to each other
Cranial nerves
enter and leave the underside of the brain. (12 pairs)
Dermatomes
segment of body served by spinal nerve
Diencephalon
includes the thalamus (sensory nuclei, information relay) and the hypothalamus(motivated behaviors, controls hormone release)
Distal
far
Dorsal root
sensory neurons enter the spinal cord through this root of each spinal nerve.
Dorsal
toward the back side of the body
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
High temporal resolution, a measure of the average electrical activity of the brain detected by sensors placed on the scalp. Measures the states of consciousness.
Efferent
‘exit’, carrying information away from a structure
Embryo
an organism in the early prenatal period, for humans, during the first 8 weeks. Second in the stages of development.
Event-related potentials
recordings of brain activity that is linked to the occurrence of an event; derived from scalp-recorded EEG
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
pre and/or postnatal growth deficiency, evidence of CNS dysfunction, and specific pattern of facial features.
Fetus
an organism after the initial period; in humans, after the first 8 weeks. Third in the stages of development.
Fissure
large groove or space between two gyri.
Forebrain
The large gray part of the brain; the outermost part
Frontal (Coronal) sections
Cutting the brain from front to back (like a loaf of bread)
Frontal Lobe
In the front, controls motor functions
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Visualizes blood flow in the brain; great temporal resolution and good spatial resolution
Golgi stain
a staining method that randomly stains about 5% of neurons, which makes them stand out individually
Gray matter
cell bodies and dendrites, appear gray because they are not myelinated
group studies
patients with similar characteristics are studied as a group
Guidance molecules
a series of chemical signals attract or repel axons are released by glia or adjacent growing axons also provide signals.
Gyrus (Gyri)
Ridges or high points on the surface of the cerebral cortex
Hindbrain
The very back of the brain and where the spinal cord starts; contains the metencephalon and the myelencephalon
Hippocampus
sub-cortical structure of the hypothalamus important in the formation of new explicit memories. Damage can result in severe anterograde amnesia.
Homunculus
“little man”, representing the amount of cortex dedicated to sensory receptors (somatosensory homunculus) or to motor neurons (Motor Homunculus)
Horizontal sections
Cutting the brain parallel to the ground
Hydrocephalus
occurs when cerebrospinal fluid builds up in the cerebral ventricles
hypothalamus
a subcortical structure in the forebrain (part of diencephalon) which plays a major role in controlling emotion and motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking and sexual activity
Inferior
location below another structure.
Insula
The primary gustatory (taste) area deep inside the frontal lobe. Receives signals from taste buds.
Ipsilateral
on the same side
Knockout
genetic engineering technique in which a nonfunctioning gene mutation is inserted during the embryonic stage
Lateral fissure
separates the frontal and temporal lobes (one on each side).
Lateral
Towards the outside
Lesion
damage to neural tissue. This can be brought about surgically for research or therapeutic reasons, or it can result from trauma, disease or developmental error
Limbic system
the “emotional circuit”. In charge of the “4 F’s” includes the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, amygdala, fornix, cingulated cortex, septum, and basal ganglia.
Lobotomies
a surgical procedure that disconnected the prefrontal area from the rest of the brain.
Longitudinal fissure
runs the length of the brain and separates the two cerebral hemispheres.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Produces a 3D image through multiple planes, and has high spatial resolution; and is used to visualize the brain’s structure
magnetoencephalography
method related to EEG that relied on the recording of magnetic potentials at the scalp to index brain activity
Medial
toward the middle
Medulla
forms the lower part of the hindbrain; its nuclei are involved with control of essential life processes, such as cardiovascular activity and respiration.
Meninges
3 thin covers on top of the brain
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Controls: audition, vision, analgesia (pain relief), sensory motor system
Metencephalon
includes pons(help breathing and heartbeat) and cerebellum(coordination)
Microencephaly
decrease in brain size
Midbrain
Located inside of the forebrain, and contains the mesencephalon; contains structures that have secondary roles in vision, audition, and movement.
Migration and Aggregation
3rd phase of neurodevelopment. Once the cells have been created they migrate to their final locations, but the migrating cells are immature, lacking axons and dendrites. The cells that are done migrating align themselves with others cells and form structures. The glia serves as a scaffolding to direct where the cells go.
Motor system
used to respond to the sensations and perceptions of the sensory system
multiple-case studies
each series of patients is treated as a single-case study
Multipotent
after the development of the neural tube, these cells are able to develop into any type of mature nervous system cell.
Myelencephalon (medulla)
heart rate and breathing, composed largely of tracts
Myelin Stain
A research technique that labels myelin, then identifies neural pathways
neural plate
a patch of tissue on the dorsal surface of the embryo that will become the nervous system
Neural Proliferation
2nd phase of neurodevelopment where proliferation occurs, generation of new cells, neurogenesis, 3 swellings at the anterior end in humans will become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Neurodevelopment
the development of the NS of humans in the womb. It consists of 5 phases.
Neurofibrillary tangles
abnormal accumulations of the protein tau that develops inside neurons and is associated with the death of brain cells in people with Alzheimer’s disease and Down syndrome
Neurogenesis
the birth of new neurons
Neuronal Death
the death of neurons. It occurs due to failure of the neurons competing for chemicals provided by targets.
neuropsychological assessment
evaluation to determine the degree to which damage to the CNS may have compromised a person’s cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning
Neuropsychology
Assists in diagnosing neural disorders, serves as a basis for counseling/caring, provides information on baseline function
Neuroscience
the scientific study of the nervous system
Neurotrophins
Promote growth and survival, guide axons, and stimulate synaptogenesis
Nissl stain
a staining method that stains cell bodies
Nucleus Accumbens
region of the brain that is involved with pleasure. It is stimulated by drug use.
Occipital Lobe
The back of the head (The most posterior part of each cerebral hemisphere)
Oligodendrocytes
myelin producing glia in the brain and spinal cord
Parasympathetic nervous system
slows the activity of most organs to conserve energy, but it also activates digestion to renew energy. (“rest & digest” or “rest and restore”)
Parietal Lobe
The top of the cerebral cortex (superior to the lateral fissure; between the central sulcus and occipital lobe); lobe of the cerebral cortex that is involved in sensory function.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
located outside of the skull and spine; serves to bring information into the CNS and carry signals out of the CNS.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
Measures brain activity by injecting radioactive dye into the body which labels active brain regions during a task. Poor temporal resolution and decent spatial resolution.
Physiological
the biological functions of any organism
Plaques
clumps of amyloid, a type of protein, that cluster among axon terminals and interfere with neural transmission (occur in Alzheimer’s Disease and Down Syndrome)
Plasticity
the brains ability to change as a result of experiences due to changes in neural connectivity. Persistent throughout life.
Pons
contains centers related to sleep and arousal, which are part of the reticular formation.
Posterior
back of head, away from head, toward the rear
Postnatal cerebral development
results from synaptogenesis, increased dendritic branches, and myelination. (NOT neurogenesis)
Prefrontal cortex
involved in planning and organization, impulse control, adjusting behavior in response to rewards and punishments, and some forms of decision making.
Preoptic area
area of the hypothalamus; sets body temp and contains separate warmth-sensitive and cold-sensitive cells
Primary Motor Cortex
located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe. Major point of convergence of cortical sensorimotor signals, as well as a major point of departure of signals from cortex.
Primary somatosensory cortex
in post central gyrus, input largely contralateral.
Primary visual cortex
in occipital lobe, input from retinas of eyes via the thalamus
Proliferation
generation of new cells; neurogensis.
Proximal
Close
Radial glial cells
specialized glial cells that provide a scaffold for migrating neurons to climb during development
Sagittal section
cutting brain from one side to the other; a midsagittal section separated the left and right halves
Sensation
The process of detecting the presence of stimuli
sensitive period
specific time during development when the organism is particularly responsive to certain external stimuli
single-case studies
single patient is studied intensively
Skull
Bone outside of the brain
Somatic nervous system
conveys sensory info into the central nervous system, conveys motor commands from CNS to muscles, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, 12 pairs of cranial nerves
Somatosensory homunculus
Visual representation that more sensitive areas = more cortex.
Somatosensory receptors
all located in the skin. Different types of receptors distributed throughout the body which respond to many different kinds of stimuli.
Somatotopic
organized according to map of body surface
Spatial Resolution
The accuracy with which one can measure where an event is occurring.
Spinal cord
a finger-sized cable of neurons that carries commands from the brain to the muscles and organs and sensory information into the brain (4sections: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral).
Spine
bones protecting the spinal cord
split-brain procedure
surgical procedure in which the corpus callosum is severed, thereby splitting the brain in half
Stem Cells
Neural plate cells that have an unlimited capacity for self-renewal and can be totipotent.
Stereotaxic Atlas
Provides coordinates for locating brain structures
Stereotaxic surgery
used to find positions within the brain
Substantia Nigra
Caudate nucleus & putamen, both of basal ganglia & nucleus accumbens, damaged in Parkinson’s disease
Sulcus (Sulci)
Small grooves on the surface of the cerebral cortex
Superior
location above another structure.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Activates the body in ways to deal with demands of emotional stress and physical emergencies. (Fight or Flight)
Synaptogenesis
Formation of new synapses that depends on the presence of Glial cells (astrocyes), and chemical signals exchange between pre- and postsynaptic neurons is needed
Targerted mutation
a genetic ‘ knockout’; inactivates a gene.
Telencephalon (cerebral cortex)
2 hemispheres, limbic system (4f’s), basal ganglia (motor).
Temporal Lobe
The side of the head (Temples) (Ventral to the lateral fissure); lobe of the cerebral cortex that is involved in audition and emotion.
Temporal Resolution
In brain activity scans, how fast changes in activity are detected.
thalamus
a forebrain structure which act as a relay point for all sensory information
Totipotent
earliest cells that have the ability to become any type of body cell.
Tract
bundle of axons in brain
transcranial direct current stimulation
method to stimulate specific area of the brain using direct electrical currents
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
magnetic fields are used to stimulate neurons by inducing electrical currents in brain structure. Used to test hypothesis about the causes of behavior.
Unilateral
on one side of the brain
Ventral root
axons of the motor neurons pass out of the spinal cord through these roots.
Ventral
toward the stomach side
Ventricles
cavities in the brain and the central canal in the spinal cord.
Wada technique
procedure to determine which hemisphere is responsible for speech output
White Matter
Inner part of the brain, composed of myelinated axons
XX chromosomes
female; cause the individual to develop ovaries. Organs that would become male wither and are absorbed.
XY Chromosomes
Male; causes the primitive gonads to develop into testes.
Zygote
a fertilized egg. First in stages of development.
