Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards
What is Motor Skill
Activities OR Tasks that require voluntary control over movement of the joints and body segments to achieve a specific goal
What is Motor Learning?
A set of internal processes associated with the practice of experience leading to relatively permanent
What is Motor Control?
How our neuromuscular system functions to activate and coordinate the muscles and limbs involved in the performance of a motor skill
What is Motor Development?
Human Development from infancy to old age with specific interest in issues related to either motor learning or motor control
Maximizing the certainty of goal achievement?
Setting specific goals that are concrete and easier to monitor. By focusing on fewer goals, we increase the chance of achieving them.
ex: archery, darts
Minimizing the physical and mental energy costs of performance
Reducing the effort required to achieve the same level of performance.
Ex: physical training and cognitive exercise that improve focus, memory, and decision-making
Minimizing the time used
Completing tasks and activities as quickly as possible, with the least waste.
What are 3 environmental goals of skills?
Maximizing the certainty of goal achievement
Minimizing the physical and mental energy costs of performance
Minimizing the time used
What are the three elements of skills?
Perceiving the relevant environmental features
Deciding what to do and where and when to do it to achieve the goal
Producing organized muscular activity to generate movements that achieve the goal
Perceiving the relevant environmental features
Revealing the informational structure in the environment that specifies its features and guides action
Deciding what to do and where and when to do it to achieve the goal
Identifying something you want to accomplish and establishing measurable and specific objectives.
Ex: Goal Setting
Producing organized muscular activity to generate movements that achieve the goal
Dictate what muscles you’re going to incorporate for a specific goal
Gross Skill?
A motor skill that requires the use of large musculature to achieve the goal of the skill
Fine Skill?
A motor skill that requires control of small muscles to achieve the goal of the skill
A high degree of precision and typically involves eye-hand coordination
Open Skills?
The environment is variable and unpredictable during the action.
Ex: team sports
Closed Skills?
The environment is stable and predictable.
Ex: Gymnastics
Discrete Skills?
Beginning and End
Often have a very brief duration of movement
Ex: throwing a ball, firing a rifle, or turning on a light switch
Serial Skills?
It is a group of discrete skills strung together to make up a new, more complicated skill action (sequence of events)
This word implies that the order of the elements is usually critical for successful performance.
Ex: Shifting gears in a car
Continuous Skills?
Having an arbitrary beginning and end
Behavior often flows for minutes or hours
Ex: Swimming, Knitting, Running
What is tracking, and under which taxonomies does it classify it?
Continuous Skill
The performer’s limb movement controls a lever, wheel, handle, or device to follow movement along a track.
Ex: Driving a car
Performance outcome measure
A category of motor skill performance measures that indicate the outcome or result of performing a motor skill.
Performance production measure
A category of motor skill performance measures that indicate the performance of
specific aspects of the motor control system during the performance of a motor skill.
Qualitative feedback
Feedback that is descriptive in nature and indicates the quality of performance.
Examples: using terms such as good shot
Quantitative feedback
Feedback that includes a numerical value related to the magnitude of a performance characteristic
Examples: pitching speed, 1-mile run time, gymnastics score.
Constant Error (CE)
Average all the scores for each subject
Interpreted as an overall tendency to underthrow or overthrow the target
Has both direction (-/+) and value
Absolute Error (AE)
Consider the absolute value (e.g., with the sign ignored or removed) of the error on each trial and take the average of those error scores for the various trials.
Interpreted as one person or group
being more off-target than another
It has value, no direction.
Variable Error
A measure of the subject’s
inconsistency
Computed by squaring the difference
between each trial’s error score and
the subject’s CE
Sum those over all of the trials, and
divide by the number of trials
Compute the square root of this value.
Error Scores in Continuous
Tasks
Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE)
RMSE
the subject’s biased tendency
as well as inconsistency in the tracking behavior.
What is Stimulus Identification
The system’s problem is to decide whether a stimulus has been presented and, if so, what it is
Primarily a sensory stage
Ex: vision, audition, touch, kinesthesis, smell
What is Response Selection?
The system’s problem is deciding what response to make, given the nature of the situation and environment.
It is a transition process between sensory input and movement output
What is Movement Programming?
The system’s problem is organizing the motor system to make the desired movement.
Before moving, the system must
ready the lower-level mechanisms in the brain stem and spinal cord for action and retrieve and organize a motor program
What are the stages of processing information?
- Stimulus Identification
- Response Selection
- Movement Programming
What are the stages of measuring processing information?
- Reaction Time
- Movement Time
- Response Time
Reaction Time?
Indicating the speed and
effectiveness of decision-making.
RT interval is a measure of the
accumulated durations of the three
stages of processing.
Any factor that increases the duration of one or more of these stages will lengthen RT.
RT Interval?
The time begins when the stimulus is first presented and ends when the movement response starts.
Simple RT?
Requires only stimulus detection
The performer knows the response to make before the stimulus comes on
Go/no-go RT
Requires both stimulus detection and stimulus identification
This is the same task as a simple RT, except another stimulus will sometimes appear, and the participant’s task is not to respond.
There is still no response selection, as the response is known before
Choice RT
The most complex
Requires stimulus detection, stimulus identification, and response selection
Movement Time?
The time from the end of RT until the completion of the movement
Response Time
Simply the combination of RT and MT (RT+MT)
What are the factors impacting reaction times?
- Stimulus-Response Alternatives
- Hick’s Law
- Stimulus-Response Compatibility
Stimulus-Response Alternatives?
It is a factor that influences RT.
RT is the time required to detect and recognize the stimulus and select and initiate the proper response.
The nature of the stimulus information presented and the nature of the movement required influence RT.
As the # of possible S-R alternatives increases, increase in the time required to respond to any one of them
Hick’s Law?
When a very large increase in RT as # of S-R alternatives increases from 1 to 2
As the number of choices continues to increase, RT increases but at smaller and smaller rates
Stimulus-Response Compatibility
It is the extent to which the stimulus and the response it evokes are connected in a natural way.
Given # of S-R alt. increases, S-R compatibility decreases choice RT.
S-R incompatible occurs when spatial mapping is not direct
What is an example of Spatial Mapping
Red light = STOP
Greenlight = GO
Population Stereotypes
Type of stimulus-response compatibility
The association of the stimulus and response is likely learned in population stereotypes (red for stop, green for go)
We sometimes act habitually due to specific cultural learning
What are two parts to consider when it comes to anticipation?
The Benefits and Cost
Anticipation?
One way in which learners cope with long RT delays
Highly skilled individuals predict what will happen and when it will occur.
A performer can organize movements in advance.
Spatial Anticipation
The ability to predict where something will occur
Temporal Anticipation
The ability to predict when something will occur
Event Anticipation
The ability to predict what will occur
Benefits of Anticipation?
A correct anticipation can result in the processing lag equivalent to
RT = 0 ms.
It can start an action simultaneously with a signal or even before it.
One factor that affects the capability to predict effectively is the regularity of events.
Example: Pitcher favors fastball, Server always serves weak side
Costs of Anticipation
- The primary disadvantage occurs when the anticipated action is not what happens.
If this occurs, it’ll require more processing activities and longer delays.
- Biochemical Disadvantage
What is Memory?
The capacity that permits organisms to benefit from past experiences
What are the 3 Memory Systems?
- Short-Term Sensory Store
- Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)
- Long-Term Memory
Function of Short-Term Sensory Store?
Perceive our environment through our senses
Duration of Short-Term Sensory Store?
Less than 1 sec
Capacity of Short-Term Sensory Store?
Countless
Happens too fast to count
Can only pay attention to a few things at a time
What is the function of short-term memory, aka working memory?
To use information
Respond to a right-now situation
Encode information and store for later use
What is the Duration of Short-Term Memory, aka Working Memory?
20-30 secs
Without rehearsal
What is the capacity of Short-Term Memory, aka Working Memory?
7 +/- items
Ability: Some people function on high end, Some people function on low end
Function of Long-Term Memory?
To use store information
Duration of Long-Term Memory
Unlimited
Capacity of Long-Term Memory?
Unlimited
What are 3 types of Memory in Long-Term Memory
- Procedural
- Semantic
- Episodic
Procedural? (Define + Example)
A memory system that enables us to know “how to do” something
- Difficult to verbalize
Ex: “It’s like riding a bike”
Semantic? (Define + Example)
A memory system that stores our general knowledge about the world based on experiences
Ex: Facts and Concepts, knowing an elephant is a mammal
Episodic? (Define + Example)
Stores our knowledge about personally experienced events
Ex: First Day of College
What are two types of knowledge?
Declarative & Procedural
Declarative Knowledge?
The knowledge that can be verbalized
- What to do to perform a skill
Composed of episodic and semantic memory
Procedural Knowledge
The knowledge that enables one actually to perform a skill
Know how to do a skill.
Typically not verbalized or difficult to verbalize
4 parts of Remembering
- Encoding
- Storage
- Rehearsal
- Retrieval
Encoding
Process of transforming to-be-remembered information into a form that can be stored in memory
Storage
Process of placing information in long-term memory
Rehearsal
Process that keeps information in working memory long enough encoding to occur
Retrieval
Process of searching through LTM for information needed for present use
What are two memory tests?
Explicit & Implicit Memory
Explicit Memory
Involves conscious thought
Recall and Recognition Test
Recall Test
Essay or fill-in-the-blank test
Explain movement patterns verbally on command
Recognition Test
Multiple Choice Test
Identify correct movement patterns from examples
Implicit Memory Test
Memory that does not take conscious thought
Ex: Tie shoes, sing ABC’s, texting, button shirt, and eating
It is possible to know what to do (declarative knowledge) but not be able actually to do it.
What are the three parts of forgetting?
- Trace Decay
- Proactive Interference
- Retroactive Interference
Causes of Trace Decay
Forgetting due to the passage of time
It can only be tested on working memory
Causes of Proactive Interference
Activity that occurs before the presentation of info to be remembered and negatively affects remembering
Causes of Retroactive Interference
Activity during retention interval negatively affects remembering
Proactive Interference: Working Memory
Confusion occurs when movements made before the main skill are similar to the main skill
When previously learned information makes it difficult to learned new information
Proactive Interference: Long-Term Memory
Negative Transfer
Occurs when movements from skill to be remembered are similar to a previously learned skill
Recall tests will favor movements from learned skills rather than new skill
Retroactive Interference: Working Memory
Occurs when a skill to be remembered and an activity performed during retention interval are similar
It also occurs when the amount of information exceeds our capacity to remember the primary skill.
(When new information makes it difficult to recall old information)
Retroactive Interference: Long-Term Memory
Continuous Motor skills more resistant to retroactive interference
Ex: riding a bike
Discrete skills are more likely to exhibit retroactive interference.
Ex: Putting together a puzzle
What are the four parts of Enhancing Memory Performance?
- Meaningfulness
- Visual Metaphoric Imagery
- Verbal Label
- Chunking
Meaningfulness
Increasing a movement’s meaningfulness
Visual Metaphoric Imagery
Developing a picture of what movement is like
Verbal Label
Attach a specific label to the movement.
Ex: Hands at 10 and 2
Chunking
Research shows the capacity of working memory does not change, but our ability to organize information improves with practice
Ex: 9127223290 instead 912-72-3290
Priming
Exposure to one stimulus affects the response to another stimulus.
Ex: Seeing a pic of a person in a lab coat, we will see a scientist
Attention
A resource (or pool of slightly different resources) that is available and that is available that can be used for various purposes.
Attentional resources are allocated define how we use attention,.
Why can we not perform two tasks simultaneously as well as one task?
Limited Resources
Attention has a limited capacity
The performer must learn what to attend to and when to attend to it.
Doing many other processes that compete for the limited resources of attentional capacity
How do we use attention effectively?
- Events in the environment
- Monitoring and correction his or her own actions
- Planning future action
- Doing many other processes that compete for the limited resources of attentional capacity
Multitasking
Attention has a limited capacity.
We cannot perform two tasks simultaneously as well as we do just one task.
When a main task is simple and does not require very much attention, then a secondary task can usually be performed
When a main task is complex, completing a secondary task is often impossible due to a lack of attentional resources.
Shifting attention
- Events in the environment
- Monitoring and Correcting his or her own actions
- Planning future actions
- Doing many other processes that compete for the limited resources of attentional capacity
Parallel Processing
Evidence that some processing can occur in parallel w/o attention
When 2-stimuli are processed @ the same time
What stages does Parallel Processing occur?
Stimulus Identification
Stroop Effect?
The delay in reaction time and accuracy time between congruent and incongruent stimuli
In the Stroop Effect, where does interference occur?
Response Selection
(increases the reaction time)
Cocktail-Party Effect?
A cognitive phenomenon that enables us to focus on one conversation while filtering out other conversations in a crowded room
In the Cocktail-Party Effect, where does interference occur?
Stimulus Identification
Inattention Blindness
Seemingly miss obvious features in our environment when we are engaged in attentive visual search
Example of Inattention Blindless
Focus on passes made by the team wearing white
Distracted Driver
“looked but failed to see” accidents with car drivers
This is an example of limitations in response selection, not movement programming
Sustained Attention
After some time, the task of concentrating on a single target of our attention becomes a progressively more difficult chore
Reasons: Motivation, Arousal, Fatigue, and Environmental Factors
Controlled Processing
Slow, attention-demanding. Serially organized and volitional as a large part of conscious information-processing activities.
– Performing two information processing tasks together can completely disrupt both tasks
- Relatively effortful
- Requires high levels of cognitive processing
- occurs slower for more novel tasks/unskilled individuals
Automatic Processing
It is a fast, not attention-demanding process that does not generate (very much) interference with other tasks organized in parallel.
(occurring together with other processing tasks) and is involuntary and often unavoidable
Costs of Automatic Processing
If automaticity occurs, skilled individuals may process information in parallel incorrectly, leading to movements that would
not aid them in their task. Essentially, anticipating wrong.
Benefits of Automatic Processing
Developed through lots of
practice, especially under a consistent mapping condition
Processing occurs in parallel, quickly, and without interference.
Developing Automaticity
Most effective in closed skills
Practice must occur under a “consistent- -mapping” condition, where the response generated is related consistently to a particular stimulus pattern.
Red Light = always stop
Double Stimulation Paradigm
The subject is required to respond separately to each of the two stimuli presented very closely together in time.
The delays in responding occur
because of the interference that arises in programming the first and second movements as rapidly as possible.
Psychological Refractory Period
The delay in responding to the second of two closely spaced stimuli.
The motor system processes the first stimulus of two closely spaced stimuli and generates the first response.
If the experimenter presents the
second stimulus during the time the
the system is processing the first stimulus and its response so that the second response can be delayed considerably.
Stimulus-Onset Asynchrony
A measure used in experimental psychology. SOA denotes the time between the start of one stimulus, S1, and the start of another stimulus, S2.
Grouping
when the Stimulus-Onset Asynchrony (the separation between the onset of two
stimuli) is very short; the psychological refractory period is increased.
However, when the Stimulus-Onset
Asynchrony is <40ms, the motor
the system responds to the two stimuli as one (i.e., Grouping).
Example of Faking
Preprograms a single, relatively complex action involving a shot fake and then the actual shot
All done in rapid succession.
The movement was organized as a single unit
Bottleneck Theory
The movement programming stage can organize and initiate only one action at a time. Any other action must wait until the stage has finished initiating the first.
The largest delay occurs when the time
between stimuli is short.
Internal Focus Attention
monitoring the ongoing movement
External Focus of Attention
a target, such as an object to be struck or the intended effect that the action will have on the environment
results in more skilled performance than an internal focus of attention
Choking
Athletes often “get in their heads” after missing a point or target, which can lead to a downward spiral that can lead to “choking.”
Inverted U-Principal
Arousal is the level of excitement
produced under stress.
The inverted-U principle represents a view of the relationship between
arousal and performance.
Increasing the arousal level generally enhances performance, but only to a point.
Perceptual Narrowing
the tendency for the perceptual
field to shrink under stress with high arousal.
A.k.a. Tunnel Vision
This is an important mechanism
because it allows the person to devote more attention to those sources of stimuli that are immediately most likely and relevant.
Gymnastics is an example of a ______ skill, performed in an ______ environment.
Serial; Closed
Define Tracking task
A continuous skill in which the performer’s limb movements control a lever, wheel, handle, or device to follow movements along a track
Skills involve achieving a defined
environmental goal by __________
the certainty of goal achievement, __________
physical and mental energy costs, and
__________ the amount of time used.
maximizing; minimizing; minimizing
What are the three elements (not goals) critical to skill performance?
Perceiving the relevant environmental features
Deciding what to do and where and when to do it
Producing organized muscular activity to generate movements
The combination of reaction time and movement time is known as
Response Time
Define and Give an example of Population Stereotype
The association of the stimulus and response is learned. It is a type of stimulus-response compatibility
2 COST of ANTICIPATION
Incorrect movements
More processing time/slower reactions
Biochemical disadvantage
Hick’s Law
The mathematical descriptor showing a linear relationship between choice reaction time and the logarithm of the number of stimulus-response alternatives
Name and define the three stages of information processing between input and output. Give an example of each.
Stage 1-stimulus identification-perceiving important environmental information by using sensory input (e.g., vision, hearing, touch, and kinesthetic awareness) and
assembling the information (e.g., perceiving whether
something is moving or stationary, and its direction, speed,
size, and color);
Stage 2- response selection-deciding what to do based on the information from stage 1
(e.g., in doubles tennis, a player decides whether to go for the ball
or let the teammate respond);
Stage 3-response programming-retrieving the motor programs necessary for
The interactive workspace is called
Working or short-term memory
Type of memory that stores our knowledge about personally experienced events
Episodic
Two types of knowledge
Declarative and Procedural
Explain the differences between trace decay, proactive interference, and retroactive interference.
Trace Decay = forgetting due to time
Proactive interference = interfering activity before a new skill interfered with retention.
Retroactive interference = interfering activity occurred after a new skill that
interfered with retention
Name the three types of memory systems and define their characteristics.
The short-term sensory store (STSS) holds stimuli according
to its sensory modality (auditory, visual, kinesthetic) for a
very short duration, only a few hundred milliseconds,
before being replaced by the next stream and is believed to
entail very little attentional processing.
Short-term memory
(STM) consists of a temporary workspace where relevant
information is processed. Information may be retrieved,
rehearsed, processed, and transferred. A small amount of
information may be held, which uses 7 ± 2 items, or
“chunks.” Attention is held in STM as long as it is being
rehearsed (e.g., looking up a telephone number). If
attention is removed, forgetting begins within 30 seconds.
Long-term memory (LTM) is considered the storage space
for experiences over a lifetime and is characterized as
having unlimited capacity and duration. Information
What is the most essential component to developing automaticity?
Practice
What is parallel processing, and in which stages is it most common
When information can be processed at the same time. Occurs in stimulus identification most often and sometimes in response selection
What is the double Stimulation Paradigm
The subject is required to respond separately to each of two stimuli presented very closely together in time.
Define gross and fine motor skills and give an example of each
Gross motor skills requires the use of large musculature to achieve a specific goal
Fine motor skills require the control of small muscles to achieve a specific goal
What is the duration and capacity of our short-term memory
Duration 20-30 seconds without rehearsal
Capacity about 7 plus/minus 2 items
List at least three strategies that can be used to enhance our memory and describe them
Increasing meaningfulness
Visual Metamorphicf imagery (developing a picture of what the movement is like)
Verbal label (attach a specific label to the movement)
Chunking
What are the three types of reaction time tasks we discussed, and describe components are involved in all three.
- Simple RT – RT-stimulus detection
- Go/no-go RT – stimulus detection and stimulus identification
- Choice RT – stimulus detection, stimulus identification, and response selection
Discuss the psychological refractory period and the stimulus-onset asynchrony. What they are, and how they impact one another
The psychological refractory period is the delay in responding to the second of two closely spaced
stimuli
Stimulus-onset asynchrony is the separation between the onset of two stimuli
When the SOA is short, the psychological refractory period is long.There is a larger delay in
responding, but when the SOA is <40ms, grouping
