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Mind, Brain, and Behavior > exam 1 study guide > Flashcards

exam 1 study guide Flashcards

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1
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

Founded 1sy psychology lab in leipzig, Germany in 1879

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2
Q

Franciscus Donders

A

1868, timed the mind

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3
Q

Wilhhelm Wundt and structuralism

A

We understand the world through combinations of basic experiences (sensation)
“Periodic table of the mind”

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4
Q

Hermann Ebbinghaus and Forgetting

A

Learned lists of nonsense syllables and plotted memory savings

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5
Q

William James and Functionalism

A

Concerned with why we do things
Investigated attention, consciousness, imagination, reasoning, and more

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6
Q

1932 - Edward Tolman

A

Rats formed mental maps of mazes

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7
Q

1932 - Frederick Bartlett

A

Found that memory of a story depended on attitude about the event

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8
Q

The Cognitive Revolution

A

1956- a shift in psychology in the 1950s that focused on how the mind works and how it drives human behavior

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9
Q

Luigi Galvani

A

demonstrated that nerves functioned via electricity

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10
Q

Phineas Gage

A

showed loss of social judgment after brain injury. Became mean and angry. This led to people believing that the top of the brain is responsible for personality changes.

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11
Q

Paul Broca

A

showed that damage to the left frontal lobe caused loss of speech

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12
Q

Radial symmetry

A

have distributed “nerve nets”, no centralized brain

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13
Q

Bilateral symmetry

A

The left side and the right side are almost mirror images of each other.

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14
Q

Bilateral symmetry characteristics

A

Has the presence of local, centralized networks within each body segment.
Longitudinal transmission of information up and down the body axis.

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15
Q

central nervous system

A

consists of the brain and spinal cord

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16
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

receptors and nerves that are found throughout the body and outside the brain and spinal cord

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17
Q

forebrain

A

Contains the cerebral hemisphere (cerebral cortex, subcortical white matter, basal ganglia, and basal forebrain nuclei).
Contains the Thalamus and Hypothalamus

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18
Q

Midbrain

A

most rostral part of the brainstem that connects the pons and cerebellum with the forebrain.

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19
Q

Hindbrain

A

Contains the pons, cerebellum, and medulla

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20
Q

Rostral

A

towards the mouth or the front end

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21
Q

Caudal

A

towards the tail end

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22
Q

Dorsal

A

towards the top or back

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23
Q

Ventral

A

towards the belly, or bottom end.

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24
Q

Anterior

A

towards the front

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25
Q

Posterior

A

towards the back

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26
Q

Superior

A

towards the top

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27
Q

Inferior

A

towards the bottom

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28
Q

Medial

A

towards the middle

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29
Q

Lateral

A

towards the side

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30
Q

Ipsilateral

A

“on the same side”

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31
Q

contralateral

A

means “on the opposite side”

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32
Q

Distal

A

towards the far (distant) end of the limb

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33
Q

Proximal

A

towards the point where the limb attaches to the body

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34
Q

Axial slice

A

divides the body along its long axis

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35
Q

Sagittal slice

A

divides the body into left and right

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36
Q

Mid-Sagittal slice

A

slice through the exact midline of the body

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37
Q

Frontal or coronal slice

A

divides body into anterior and posterior sections.

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38
Q

peripheral nervous system consists of

A

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

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39
Q

The somatic nervous system

A

detects and processes information from external stimuli. Includes the sensory inputs and motor outputs for guiding voluntary body movements in the external world. Has somatic afferent (or somatosensory) neurons for input and somatic efferent (or motor) neurons for output. (are found in the skin, muscle, and joints)

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40
Q

The autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

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41
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Reacts to threats or opportunities in the external world: feeding, fighting, flighting, and fucking.

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42
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

“Rest-and-regenerate”

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43
Q

visceral afferent (or visceral sensory) neurons

A

input

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44
Q

visceral efferent (or autonomic) neurons

A

output

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45
Q

visceral

A

Anything having to do with organ activity.

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46
Q

Somatic motor neurons

A

Extend from the spinal cord to the muscles of the body
Make contact at specialized structures called the neuromuscular junction
Electrical activity releases signaling chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters stimulate the muscle on the body to contract.

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47
Q

Visceral efferent neurons

A

Send output signals to the body’s internal organs.
Regulates activities of the body’s internal world.

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48
Q

Each segment of the spinal cord

A

has its own set of peripheral nerve roots on the left and right

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49
Q

All sensory inputs enter the spinal cord through the

A

dorsal nerve root at the back

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50
Q

then all motor outputs exit the spinal cord through the

A

ventral nerve root at the front of the spinal cord

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51
Q

Dermatomes

A

A region of the skin that
Receives input from a single spinal nerve

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52
Q

Myotomes

A

A region of the muscle that receives output from a single spinal nerve.

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53
Q

describe the structure of the spinal cord

A

Small central canal, surrounded by a butterfly-shaped structure of gray matter, which is surrounded by white matter

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54
Q

Gray matter

A

nerve tissue consisting of the unmyelinated cell bodies of dendrites and neurons. Handles sensory and motor info

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55
Q

Dorsal layers have mostly

A

sensory neurons of the spinal cord

56
Q

Ventral layers (or ventral horns) are mostly

A

motor neurons

57
Q

White matter

A

tissue in the CNS, consists of myelinated axons of neurons, which carry info over long distances. Handles communication with distant neurons.

58
Q

The cell bodies of the PNS live right outside. . . where

A

in the dorsal root ganglion

59
Q

Dorsal root ganglion

A

collection of cell bodies of the sensory neurons of the PNS

60
Q

Types of reflexes

A

monosynaptic and polysynaptic

61
Q

Monosynaptic

A

the entire circuit involves only one synapse, or connection, between neurons

62
Q

Polysynaptic

A

involved more than one synapse, because an interneuron (connects 2 other neurons) lies between the incoming sensory neuron and the outgoing motor neuron in the circuit.

63
Q

Central pattern generator

A

a collection of neurons within the CNS that can spontaneously generate and maintain rhythmic movements like walking or swallowing.

64
Q

The brainstem

A

most posterior region of the brain, point of communication between the spinal cord and the most anterior of structure of the nervous system

65
Q

part of the brain stem

A

midbrain, pons, medulla

66
Q

Midbrain

A

Involved in visual and auditory reflexes, arousal level, homeostasis functions, and motor control.
Superior colliculus: involved in locating visual stimuli in space and uses that info to direct complex movement (turning eyes to look). Eye movement
Inferior colliculus: parallel functions using auditory inputs. Sound location
Command generators: can start, stop, or modulate the activity of central pattern generators in the brainstem/ spinal cord. Can take input from visual and auditory sensors..
Periaqueductal gray matter: neurons organized into nuclei, each nucleus handles a different basic class of behavior, like defense, aggression, and reproduction. Central pattern generator that coordinates other pattern generators themselves.

67
Q

Reticular formation (network of neurons)

A

regulates states of consciousness

68
Q

Locus coeruleus (nucleus)

A

sends alert signals to the rest of the brain via a neurotransmitter called norepinephrine (regulates levels of arousal, alertness, and attention)

69
Q

Substantia nigra (collection of cells)

A

main source of neurotransmitter dopamine. Helps with movement, cognition, motivation, and reward.

70
Q

Midbrain raphe nuclei

A

main source of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin helps with mood, sleep, and social behavior.

71
Q

Brainstem nuclei (collection of neuron cell bodies within the CNS):

A

handle new sensory, motor, somatic, and visceral functional requirements. These are due to the many important sensory receptors, such as pain, vibration, position, and touch receptors. And motor functions, such as the tongue, mouth, neck, and head.

72
Q

Pons:

A

delays signals between the cerebellum and the cerebrum (anterior most structure of the CNS).
Involved in arousal, sleep, breathing, swallowing, bladder control, eye movement, facial expressions, hearing, equilibrium, and posture.

73
Q

Medulla

A

Regulates involuntary functions that are essential to life, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. (central pattern generators).

74
Q

The cerebellum:

A

Coordinating movements across the midline
Contains more neurons than the cortex
Organized into leaflike structures called folia, lobules, and lobes
Predictions about expected outcomes of motor action, the refine plans
Also important in language, memory, attention, and emotion
Purkinje cells: beautiful, intricate branch work of input connections that gather information from the molecular layer above them. They send their output back to specialized output nuclei in the brainstem, which pass the info back to the spinal cord and ahead to the cerebral cortex and the brain.

75
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Regulation of homeostatic and motivating behaviors - hormones
“Basic drives”; includes hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, temperature regulation, and sleep.
Neurons cluster into distinct groups: the hypothalamic nuclei. Each hypothalamic nucleus has a distant function.
Visceral inputs via the spinal cord, hormonal inputs from other body organs, and even direct measurements of the chemistry of the bloodstream.

76
Q

Thalamus

A

Sensory relay station to the cerebral cortex.
Relays motor signals to the cerebral cortex from other motor control structures like the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
Thalamic neurons cluster into a larger # if separate thalamic nuclei.
Lateral geniculate nucleus - relays information from the light-sensitive neurons to the primary visual cortex
Reticular nucleus consists of a thin sheet of neurons that wraps around the entire surface of the thalamus. Organizes communication activity f=of the nuclei themselves.

77
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Covered in convolutions (gyri/gyrus, sulci/sulcus) which triples the surface area
Gyri, rounded convolutions of the cerebral cortex
Sulci, grooves between gyri.
Outer layers make up the cortex where higher processing happens
Gray matter = cell bodies
White matter = axons
Mid Sagittal sulcus, divided the two hemispheres.
Corpus callosum: bridge of white matter that connects the two hemispheres.

78
Q

Frontal

A

personality, motor control, planning, decision-making, goal selection

79
Q

Parietal

A

processing sensory information, spatial cognition, and body movement

80
Q

Occipital

A

Visual processing

81
Q

Temporal

A

sound processing, what something is, social cue perception

82
Q

The Cerebral Ventricles

A

Duct system of the brain
4 chambers
Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

83
Q

Meninges

A

Three layer of membranes
Dura mater (tough mother).
Arachnoid membrane (spiderweb): Subarachnoid space.
Pia mater (pious mother) - adheres to the brain.
Order starting from brain goes from pia mater, to arachnoid, to dura mater
Dehydration helps with cerebrospinal fluid.
cerebrospinal fluid: is a clear, colorless fluid that protects and nourishes the brain and spinal cord.

Blood is in subarachnoid space

84
Q

The Limbic System

A

hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, fornix

85
Q

Hypothalamus

A

(feeding, fighting, flighting, fucking) and limbic nuclei of thalamus project to the limbic system.

86
Q

Amygdala

A

emotional evaluation and learning

87
Q

Hippocampus

A

learning and memory
Episodic memory: memory gained from emotional experiences, good and bad.

88
Q

Fornix

A

white matter that connects the hippocampus and hypothalamus
Mammillary bodies (pair of nuclei): links current needs to memories of past events

89
Q

cell body (soma)

A

Contains the nucleus and organelles; responsible for metabolic processes and integration of signals.

90
Q

Dendrites

A

Branch-like structures that receive incoming signals from other neurons. They contain receptors for neurotransmitters.

91
Q

Axon

A

A long, slender projection that conducts electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the cell body

92
Q

Axon Hillock

A

The junction between the cell body and axon, where action potentials are initiated.

93
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Fatty insulation that surrounds segments of the axon, produced by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.

94
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Gaps in the myelin sheath where action potentials are regenerated.

95
Q

Axon Terminals (Synaptic Boutons)

A

Small branches at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

96
Q

Function of Neurons

A

Neurons transmit information via electrical impulses and chemical signals, allowing communication within the nervous system.

97
Q

Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

A

Function: Transmit sensory information from receptors (e.g., skin, eyes) to the CNS.
Structure: Usually have a long dendritic tree to gather signals from sensory receptors.

98
Q

Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

A

Function: Convey signals from the CNS to muscles and glands, facilitating movement and response.
Structure: Typically have long axons that extend to muscles.

99
Q

Interneurons

A

Function: Connect neurons within the CNS, facilitating communication between sensory and motor pathways. Involved in reflexes and higher cognitive functions.
Structure: Shorter axons; can be local or long-range.

100
Q

Glial Cells

A

Support cells in the nervous system, involved in various functions including homeostasis, forming myelin, and providing support and protection for neurons.

101
Q

Astrocytes

A

Star-shaped cells that maintain the blood-brain barrier, provide nutrients to neurons, and regulate ion balance.

102
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Form myelin sheaths around axons in the CNS, increasing the speed of conduction.

103
Q

Schwann Cells

A

Myelinate axons in the PNS.

104
Q

Microglia

A

Act as immune cells in the CNS, clearing debris and responding to injury.

105
Q

Ependymal Cells

A

Line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

106
Q

Action Potential Arrival

A

When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it depolarizes the membrane.

107
Q

Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels:

A

The depolarization opens these channels, allowing Ca²⁺ ions to flow into the presynaptic neuron.

108
Q

Neurotransmitter Release

A

The influx of calcium triggers synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

109
Q

Presynaptic Membrane

A

Contains vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft when vesicles fuse with the membrane.

110
Q

Postsynaptic Membrane:

A

Contains receptors specific to the neurotransmitters released.
Binding of neurotransmitters to these receptors causes changes in the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane potential.

111
Q

Ionotropic Receptors

A

Ligand-gated ion channels that open in response to neurotransmitter binding, allowing specific ions to flow through (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺).

112
Q

Metabotropic Receptors

A

G-protein coupled receptors that, when activated, initiate intracellular signaling cascades that can lead to changes in cell function over a longer duration.

113
Q

Reuptake

A

Neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic neuron via transporters, allowing them to be reused.

114
Q

Enzymatic Degradation

A

Specific enzymes break down neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft (e.g., acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine).

115
Q

Diffusion

A

Some neurotransmitters simply diffuse away from the synaptic cleft.

116
Q

Agonists

A

Molecules that enhance or mimic the action of neurotransmitters (e.g., morphine is an opioid agonist).

117
Q

Antagonists

A

Molecules that block the action of neurotransmitters (e.g., naloxone blocks opioid receptors).

118
Q

Resting Potential

A

The neuron at rest has a voltage of approximately -70 mV, maintained by:
Ion Distribution: Higher concentration of Na⁺ outside and K⁺ inside the cell.
Sodium-Potassium Pump: Actively transports 3 Na⁺ ions out and 2 K⁺ ions into the cell, contributing to negative internal charge.
Permeability: The membrane is more permeable to K⁺ than Na⁺, allowing K⁺ to leak out, further contributing to negativity.

119
Q

Depolarization

A

Triggered when a stimulus causes the membrane potential to reach the threshold (~-55 mV).
Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺ to rush into the cell, rapidly depolarizing it.

120
Q

Repolarization

A

After peak depolarization, Na⁺ channels close, and voltage-gated K⁺ channels open, allowing K⁺ to exit the cell, restoring the negative charge.

121
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

K⁺ channels remain open slightly longer, causing the membrane potential to drop below the resting potential (around -80 mV).

122
Q

Return to Resting Potential:

A

The sodium-potassium pump restores the original ion distribution, returning the neuron to resting potential.

123
Q

Before Action Potential

A

Resting potential (-70 mV); Na⁺ outside, K⁺ inside.

124
Q

During Action Potential

A

Phase 1 (Depolarization): Na⁺ influx (voltage increases to +30 mV).
Phase 2 (Repolarization): K⁺ efflux (voltage decreases back to -70 mV).
Phase 3 (Hyperpolarization): K⁺ continues to leave, voltage drops to -80 mV.

125
Q

After Action Potential

A

Returns to resting potential via the sodium-potassium pump.

126
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

The process by which action potentials jump between Nodes of Ranvier along myelinated axons, greatly increasing conduction speed (up to 120 m/s).

127
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Insulates axons, preventing ion leakage and allowing for faster transmission of electrical impulses.

128
Q

Graded Potentials

A

Changes in membrane potential that are not large enough to trigger an action potential. They are variable in magnitude and can be either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing.

129
Q

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs):

A

Caused by the influx of Na⁺ through ionotropic receptors.
Result in depolarization, making the neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

130
Q

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSPs):

A

Caused by the influx of Cl⁻ or efflux of K⁺.
Result in hyperpolarization, making the neuron less likely to fire an action potential.

131
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Occurs when multiple EPSPs or IPSPs from different locations on the neuron combine to influence the overall membrane potential.

132
Q

Temporal Summation:

A

Occurs when multiple signals from the same presynaptic neuron arrive in quick succession, reinforcing each other.

133
Q

Neural Coding

A

Refers to the way information is represented in the brain through patterns of neuronal firing.

134
Q

Rate Coding

A

Information is represented by the frequency of action potentials; a stronger stimulus results in a higher firing rate.

135
Q

Temporal Coding

A

Information is conveyed through the timing of spikes; specific patterns of neuronal firing may represent particular information.

136
Q

Population Coding

A

Information is represented by the activity of a group of neurons rather than a single neuron.

Mind, Brain, and Behavior (2 decks)

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