Exam 1 Study Guide Flashcards
The most important advantage of transmission electron microscope (TEM) over light microscope (LM) is its higher resolution.
True
If a cell doubled in diameter, it would have twice as much cytoplasm to maintain.
False
In the plasma membrane, glycolipids and glycoproteins face toward the cytoplasm, while peripheral proteins always face toward the ECF.
False
A cell’s second messengers serve to transport material through the plasma membrane
False
Microvilli and cilia differ in their function but have the same internal structure.
False
Ligand-gated channels are membrane proteins that open or close in response to the binding of a chemical.
True
The greater the concentration gradient the faster the diffusion rate.
True
The Na+-K+ ATPase is a countertransport antiport carrier, which always requires energy.
True
The sodium-glucose transport protein (SGLT) is one example of an active transport process involving a uniport carrier.
False
One example of pinocytosis is the uptake of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) by endothelial cells.
False
Both the nucleus and the mitochondrion are surrounded by two layers of unit membrane.
True
The nucleus is the largest organelle in most cells.
True
Ribosomes are made of proteins and RNA.
True
The Golgi complex makes peroxisomes but not lysosomes.
False
A crystal of calcium phosphate in the cytoplasm of a cell should be classified as an inclusion.
True
All of the generalizations below constitute the modern cell theory
except
A. an organism’s structure and all of its functions are ultimately due to the activities of its cells.
B. all cells come only from preexisting cells.
C. all cells occupy space.
D. all organisms are composed of cells and cell products.
E. the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
c. all cells occupy space
________ cells are thick in the middle and tapered toward the end.
e. Fusiform
Most human cells range from 10 to 15 micrometers in diameter. What limits how large a cell can be?
d. The relationship between its length and surface area
The fluid outside of a cell is called.
c. Extracellular fluid
The flat shape cells found covering the skin are
d. Squamous
Although the transmission electron microscope (TEM) can magnify much more than a light microscope, even at identical magnifications the TEM has the advantage of
d. Producing higher resolution
___ are the most abundant molecules in the plasma membrane
b. Phospholipids
__ are membrane proteins that bind to signals by which cells communicate.
a. Receptors
A receptor protein in the plasma membrane will not bind to just any chemical in the extracellular fluid, but only to certain ones. That is to say, the receptor exhibits
b. Specificity
In its second-messenger role, cAMP activates enzymes called ______, whose job is to regulate
other enzymes by adding phosphate groups to them.
c. Kinases
Transmembrane proteins that make up enzymes in the plasma membrane are made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. Most amino acids embedded in the membrane are ________, while most amino acids facing the extracellular fluid are _________
d. Hydrophobic, hydrophilic
Gates respond to all these stimuli except
e. Water in the extracellular fluid
___ act like identification tags in the glycocalyx that enable the body to distinguish its own cells from foreign and diseased cells
a. Glycoproteins
______ provide mobility to a cell, ______ act as sensory “antenna” in many cells, and ________ increase a cell’s surface area
e. Flagella, cilia, microvilli
Cells lining the small intestine are specialized for absorption of nutrients. Their plasma membrane has
c. Microvilli
___ consume ATP when transferring solutes from one side to the other side of the plasma membrane
b. Pumps
Two solutions are separated by a selectively permeable membrane. If solution A has a higher concentration of a nonpermeating solute than solution B, then,
d. Water will pass down its concentration gradient from solution B to A
____ is the process in which ____ forces water and small solutes such as salts through narrow clefts between capillary cells.
Filtration; hydrostatic pressure
Water flows through a selectively permeable membrane in a process called __________, but water molecules cross the membrane more easily through channels of transmembrane proteins called _____
b. Osmosis; aquaphorins
Insulin is taken up by endocytosis by endothelial cells lining capillaries, and then transported across the cell to the other side, where it is released. This transport is called
e. Transcytosis
Sodium and glucose are transported together from the intestinal lumen into an intestinal cell. The carrier protein is a(n) __________ and the process is called ____________
a. Symport; contransport
The sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump transports both sodium and potassium __________ their concentration gradients in a process called ___________.
a. Up; active transport
A red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution. The concentration of solutes in the solution is __________ than the concentration of solutes in the intracellular fluid and will cause the cell to _____________.
c. Higher; shrink
Facilitated diffusion and active transport have in common that both
e. Are cases of carrier mediated transport
_____ describes the number of particles of a solute in a solution, whereas ______ is the ability of a solution to affect the fluid volume in a cell.
c. Osmolarity; tonicity
Which of the following processes could occur only through the plasma membrane of a living cell?
e. Active transport
Particles can leave a cell by any of these means except by
e. Pinocytosis
White blood cells engulf bacteria by means of
a. Phagocytosis
The Na+-K+ pump has the following functions except
b. Transport of Na+ into the cell and K+ out of the cell
A patient was severely dehydrated, losing a large amount of fluid. The patient was given intravenous fluids of normal saline. Normal saline is ________ to your blood cells and is about _________ NaCl
b. Isotonic; 0.9%
Which of these is an example of active transport?
d. Transport of Na+ from a place of low concentration to a place of higher concentration
Which of these bring nonspecific material into a cell?
d. Pinocytosis
These are all membranous organelles
except
b. Ribosomes
Among other functions, hepatocytes (liver cells) are specialized in detoxifying frugs or other chemicals. Hepatocytes have large amounts of
b. Smooth endoplastic reticulum
What function would immediately cease if the ribosomes of a cell were destroyed?
d. Protein synthesis
What organelle is most active in causing programmed cell death?
d. Lysosome
Muscle cells contain numerous _____________ to serve their high demand for ATP
c. Mitochondria
This organelle synthesizes steroids in the ovary and stores calcium in muscle cells.
a. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
______ play an important role in cell division, and they are made of _______.
d. Centrioles; microtubes
___________ synthesize(s) carbohydrates and put(s) finishing touches on proteins synthesized at __________.
b. The golgi complex, rough ER
_____ decompose fatty acids, and detoxify alcohol, free radicals, and drugs.
d. Peroxisomes
_______ is not involved in protein synthesis.
a. Smooth ER
__________ gives structural support, determines the shape of a cell, and directs the movement of substances through the cell.
e. The cytoskeleton
Listening to the natural sounds the body makes such as heart and lung sounds
Auscultation
Sounds from tapping on the body. Example : when a doctor taps your knee and listens to the reflex.
Percussion
Feeling the sounds the body makes. Example : taking pulse, palpating a swollen lymph node
Palpation
Structures in the body we don’t need / use anymore as humans evolve. Example : the appendix - can be removed from humans now
Vestigial Organs / Structures
Chemical reactions in the body. Hint : digesting food.
Metabolism
Regulating the body to its normal set point Example : going on a run and cooling down, problem if the body is still running a fever / abnormal
Homeostasis
The study of organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. 4 categories : Carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
Compounds
Consist of particles of matter called solute that mix with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the solvent. Solute can be gas, solid, or liquid. Must be small, don’t separate, pass through cell membrane.
Solutions
Inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed up the food chain to humans
Minerals
Energy storing decomposition reaction (exergonic)
Catabolic Reaction
Energy releasing synthesis reaction (endergonic)
Anabolism
How living cells form polymers. A hydroxyl (OH) is removed from one monomer and hydrogen (H) from another - makes water once evaporated.
Dehydration Synthesis
A water molecule ionizing into (OH) and (H). OH is added to one monomer and H is added to the other
Hydrolysis
Mutations : changes in genetic structure
Evolution
Varieties of an element that differ from one another only in the number of neutrons and therefore in atomic mass
Isotope
Surface film on surface water due to molecules being held together by a force called ___
Surface tension
Any chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons and energy, molecule is reduced when accepting electrons
Reductive
Any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy, molecule is oxidized in this process
Oxidation
Major component in cell membrane, assists in fat digestion
Phospholipids
Cell that is hydrophilic and hydrophobic
Amphiphilic
Polymers of nucleotides. RNA and DNA are this ___
Nucleic Acid
Molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits (monomers)
Polymers
Made up of nitrogen base (single or double carbon - nitrogen ring), sugar and one or more phosphate groups. ATP is the best known ___ (adenine (nitrogen base), ribose (sugar), phosphate group (3)
Nucleotides
Carries two or more solutes simultaneously in the same direction (cotransport)
Symport
Carries two of more solutes in opposite directions (countertransport). Sodium potassium pump brings in K and removes Na from cell
Antiport
____ is the structure (heart shape)
Anatomy
____ is the function (hearing with your ears)
Physiology
If one fails so will the other, they rely on each other but they are not the same thing
Anatomy and physiology
Sudden changes to the body, blood clotting, giving birth and the cervix changes - often dangerous
Positive feedback
Knowing something in your body is wrong, being able to detect change, and adapt to it
Negative feedback
The powerhouse of the cell
Extracts energy and transfers it to ATP
Detoxify ammonia
Convert amino acids to glucose
Mitochondria
Largest organelle, only one clearly visible with a light microscope
Contains cells chromosomes, is the genetic control center of cellular activity
Most cells have a nucleus, a few don’t (mature red blood cells)
Nucleus
Makes proteins from RNA
Ribosome
Makes proteins, little network in the cytoplasm
Rough ER
Makes steroids, little network in the cytoplasm
Smooth ER
Gives the cell structure
Cytoskeleton
Hairlike processes 7-10 um long
“Antenna” for monitoring nearby conditions, sensory in inner ear, retina, nasal cavity and kidney
Function still a mystery in some cases
Cilia
Extensions of the cell membrane that serve primarily to increase a cell’s surface area
Best developed in absorption areas such as kidneys and intestines
Microvilli
Tail of sperm
Flagella
Develops lysosomes, synthesize proteins for ER, adds carbs
Golgi Apparatus / Complex
Cell death, autophagy / autolysis, kills cells at end of cell life or transfers / transforms them
Lysosomes
Similar to lysosomes, made with hydrogen peroxide, takes out toxins (alcohol, drugs, etc)
Peroxisomes
Fluid between the nucleus and surface membrane
Thick sticky material that allows things not to move around, all organelles are inside
Cytoplasm
Surrounds cell, protects what is inside, defines boundaries, made of proteins and lipids, composition and function can vary from one region of the cell to another
Separates cell from body, protects what’s inside
Plasma membrane
Substances that dissolve in water
Hydrophilic
Substances that don’t dissolve in water
Hydrophobic
Contribute to glycocalyx
Glycoproteins
Coat cell membrane with carbs so it recognizes cells
Stiffen the cell membrane so it doesn’t fall apart
Anchored to cytoskeleton or drift freely in phospholipid film
Glycolipids
Adhere to one face of the membrane
Tethered to the cytoskeleton
Peripheral proteins
Know their function within the body
Know how a protein structure is determined
Proteins
In plasma membrane
Source of energy
1:2:1 ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen
Often built from sacchar or ose meaning sugar or sweet (Monosaccharide or gluclose)
Carbohydrates
In plasma membrane
Hydrophobic organic molecule
Store energy, insulation and shock absorption
Important for muscles
Lipids
5 types of lipids in humans
Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids
Three fatty aids bonded to three carbon alcohol called glycerol
Each bond formed by dehydration synthesis
Broken down by hydrolysis
Liquid (oils) Solid (fats)
Triglycerides
Cell communication via chemical signals
Surface proteins on plasma membrane of target cell
Bind hormones and neurotransmitters
Receptors
Major scientist who made it possible to study biology?
Robert Hooke
Proteins that function as biological proteins
All enzymes are proteins but not all proteins are enzymes
Speed up chemical reactions
Every substrate looks for substrate to male an activation site
Example : my key only works for my front door
How enzymes work
High resolution microscope, dead and dried specimens seen using electron beams
Transmission Electron Microscope
Microscope reveals plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm
Light Microscope
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen (98.5% of body weight)
Essential Elements
12 elements only 0.7% of the body weight
Trace Elements
Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
Element
4 Covalent Bonds
Single covalent bond - one pair of electrons shared
Double covalent bond - two pairs of electrons shared
Nonpolar and polar covalent bonds - strongest of chemical bonds
Nonpolar (electrons shared equally)
Polar (electrons shared unequally)
Relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation
Ionic Bond
Weak attraction between slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom in another
Hydrogen Bond
Weak brief interactions between neutral atoms
Van Der Waals
The study of compounds containing carbon
Must have one carbon and one hydrogen
Organic Chemistry
Four categories of carbon compounds
Carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleotides and nucleic acids
Study of carbon and hydrogen don’t bond
Inorganic Chemistry
Normal blood pH
7.35 to 7.45
pH lower than 7
Acidic
pH higher than 7
Alkaline
pH of 7
Neutral
Central carbon with three attachments
Amino Acids
20 amino acids used to make proteins identical except for radical ® group
Properties of amino acids determined by R group
R Group
Contain C=C bonds without hydrogen (liquid at room temp)
Unsaturated fats
Carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen (solid at room temp)
Saturated fats
Must be releasing energy, force things to leave or stay, they want it, they take it
Active transport (vesicular transport, exocytosis, endocytosis)
Let things happen to you naturally (filtration, diffusion, osmosis) - split evenly
Passive transport (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration, osmosis)
Processes that move large particles, fluid droplets or numerous molecules at once through the membrane in vesicles
Vesicular transport
Discharging material from the cell
Exocytosis
Vesicular processes that bring material into the cell
Endocytosis
The net movement of particles from area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
Simple diffusion
Carrier mediated transport of solute through a membrane down its concentration gradient
Facilitated diffusion
Process by which particles are driven through a selectively permeable membrane by hydrostatic pressure
Filtration
Flow of water from one side of selectively permeable membrane to the other
Osmosis
Move everything but water
Concentration of substance differs from one point to another
Concentration Gradient
Swell (absorb water) Hint : Hippo (fat)
Hypotonic
Skinny (lose water) Hint : hyper people are active
Hypertonic
Stay the same (maintain water)
Isotonic
The cells life cycle that extends from one division to the next
Cell cycle
Mitosis / cell cycle phases
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
Cell lives here for 90% of life
Interphase
Chromosomes shorten and thicken, coil into compact rods
DNA twists / bonds
Prophase
Chromosomes are aligned on cell equator
X’s go to middle of cell
Metaphase
Activation of enzyme that cleaves to sister chromatids apart at centromere
String X’s (chromosome) break to V’s
Anaphase
Chromatids cluster on each side of cell
Cell splits down middle
Telophase
The division of cytoplasm into two cells
Cytokineses
What your genes say is gonna happen to you / all the genes in your body
Genotype
What actually happens physically to you on your genes
Phenotype
Levels of organization
Atoms
Molecules
Organelles
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
The Human Organism
What structures combine to make other structures
Organism composed of organ systems
Organ system composed of organs
Organs composed of tissues
Tissues composed of cells
Cells composed of organelles
Organelles composed of molecules
Stiffens the cell membrane so it doesn’t fall apart
20% of membrane lipids
Cholesterol
Single (+) charge, mass = 1 atomic mass unit
Protons
No charge, mass = 1 amu
Neutrons
Single negative charge, very low mass
In concentric cloud that surround the nucleus
Electrons
___ determine the chemical properties of an atom
Electrons
Atom is electrically neutral because of the number of ___ is equal to the number of ___
Electrons, protons
Atom that gains electrons (net negative charge)
Anion
Atom that loses an electron (net a positive charge)
Cation
Two molecules exchange atoms or group of atoms (AB + CD - ABCD - AC + BD)
Exchange Reaction
Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one (A + B - AB)
Synthesis Reaction
Large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones (AB - A + B)
Decomposition
All classes of sugar (carbohydrates)
Examples : glucose, galactose, fructose
Monosaccharide
Sugar molecule composed of two monosaccharides
Example : Sucrose - table sugar (glucose and fructose) Lactose - sugar in milk (lactose and galactose) Maltose - grain products (glucose and glucose)
Disaccharide
Long chains of monosaccharides (at least 50)
Example : Glycogen - energy storage polysaccharide in animals, Starch - energy storage polysaccharide in plants, Cellulose - structural molecule of plant cell walls
Polysaccharide
Study of cells (coined by Robert Hooke)
Cytology
New cells are made of old cells
Theodor Schwann
“Spontaneous cells” cells that can replace themselves
Louis Pasteur
Fluid inside cell - cytosol
Intracellular Fluid
Fluid outside the cell
Example : blood
Extracellular Fluid
Most in body, fish cell shape
Thin and flat with nucleus creating buldge
Squamous
Starlike cell shape
Stellate
Tall and skinny cell shape
Taller than wide
Columnar
Round to oval cell shape
Spheroid
Dice cell shape
Cuboidal
Thin, pointy ends cell shape
Fusiform
Red blood cell looking
Discoid
