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Fundamentals of Neuroscience > Exam 1: Slide 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1: Slide 1 Flashcards

1
Q

The Compound Microscope

A

discovered in the 1600s-1700s; neural cells could be distinguished

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2
Q

Who proposed the theory of Phrenology?

A

Franz Joseph Gall; early 18002

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3
Q

Phrenology

A

a. That the brain was the source of behavior
b. Specific regions of the cortex correlated to specific function (i.e. generosity, religiousness, etc.)
c. With use, the brain region associated with a specific function grew (like a muscle), and the bumps on your skull reflected this

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4
Q

Camillo Golgi

A

Formulated the Golgi method
Golgi made incredibly detailed drawings of different neuronal types using this method
As a result of his work, Golgi helped support the reticular theory

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5
Q

The Golgi Method

A

usiing silver slats to stain whole neurons in the brain

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6
Q

Reticular Theory

A

stated that the brain was made up of a continuous network of neurons; supported by Golgi’s work; This was later disproved by Cajal

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7
Q

Santiago Ramon y Cajal

A

(late 1800s) – Spanish neuroanatomist
Improved upon the Golgi method
Cajal was able to show that neurons were individual cells that communicated with each other instead of a continuous network. This was known as the neuron doctrine

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8
Q

The Neuron Doctrine

A

Cajal was able to show that neurons were individual cells that communicated with each other instead of a continuous network and became known as this

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9
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Classified based on some are all neuronal parts being located outside of a bony casing(i.e. not all contained within the brain and spinal cord); comprises axons that are bundled into what are called nerves, and cell bodies called ganglia
The PNS can be further divided into:
Somatic nervous system: communication with sensory organs and voluntary motor control and is largely under our conscious control; cranial and spinal nerves
Autonomic nervous system – communication with internal organs and is not under voluntary control

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10
Q

PNS: Somatic Nervous System

A

communication with sensory organs and voluntary motor control and is largely under our conscious control; cranial and spinal nerves

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11
Q

PNS: Autonomic Nervous System

A

communication with internal organs and is not under voluntary control
sympathetic and parasymapthetic

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12
Q

Cranial Nerves

A
  • sensory and motor innervation for head and neck
  • You have 12 pairs of cranial nerves, some are purely sensory (vision, smell and vestibulocochlear), some are purely motor (oculomotor, trochlear, abducens, spinal accessory and hypoglossal) and the rest are mixed (trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal and vagus)
  • PNS: Somatic
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13
Q

Spinal Nerves

A

-sensory and motor innervation for the rest of the body
-You have 31 pairs of spinal nerves, broken in to 4 distinct segments: cervical (neck), thoracic (trunk), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic) and coccygeal (bottom).
From each spinal cord section, you will have two types of nerve bundles going into or out of the spinal cord:
1. Dorsal root
2. Ventral root

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14
Q

Spinal Nerves Segment

A

cervical (neck), thoracic (trunk), lumbar (lower back), sacral (pelvic) and coccygeal (bottom)

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15
Q

Dorsal Root

A

sensory information coming in to the spinal cord on the dorsal (i.e. back) side
spinal nerves; nerve bundles

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16
Q

Ventral Root

A

motor information leaving the spinal cord on the ventral side (i.e. stomach) side
spinal nerves; nerve bundles

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17
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

communicates with internal organs and glands and is largely not under our conscious control.
comprised of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

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18
Q

PNS: Autonomic: Sympathetic Nervous System

A

“fight or flight”; cell bodies located in the vertebral column for the first neuron (preganglionic), which synapses onto a postganglionic neuron usually located in the sympathetic chain ganglia. This second neuron then sends its axons to a target gland.

The preganglionic fiber releases a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, while the postganglionic releases a neurotransmitter called norepinephrine.

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19
Q

PNS: Autonomic: Parasympathetic Nervous System

A

-rest and digest; cell bodies located by target organs/glands (preganglionic), with the postganglionic neuron projecting to the target.

The preganglionic and postganglionic fibers release acetylcholine.

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20
Q

Central Nervous System

A
  • contains your brain and spinal cord, which is the main focus of this class
  • In the CNS bundles of axons are called tracts (pns=nerve), and clustered cell bodies are called nuclei (pns=ganglia)
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21
Q

Central Nervous System Grey and White matter

A

The myelin covering the axons tend to be white in appearance and the cell bodies grey, thus regions with cell bodies are called grey matter and regions with axons white matter.

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22
Q

The four major divisions of the CNS

A

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain and the spinal cord

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23
Q

Forebrain

A

Gyri (gyrus=one)
Sulci (sulcus=one)
The cortex contains two hemispheres, a left and a right
layered structure, with 6 layers of neurons in humans.

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24
Q

Forebrain Gyri and Sulci

A

Gyri (gyrus=one) – cortical bulges that are divided by:
Sulci (sulcus=one) – grooves in between the gyri
The sulci and gyri allow humans to have a lot of brain tissue within our skull compared to other species.

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25
Q

Forebrain: Corpus Callosum

A

connection between the two hemispheres. This area contains a band of nerve fibers that send information to/from each hemisphere.

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26
Q

Lateralization of Function

A

refers to how some cognitive processes tend to be specialized within a hemisphere.
Language – many aspects of language are localized to the left hemisphere in right-handed individuals

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27
Q

How to test Lateralization of Function

A

The Wada Test and Split Brain Patients

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28
Q

The Wada Test

A

Injection of drug into right or left carotid artery, which shuts down function of one hemisphere. Then, you can test for language or memory to see if it is intact. Done before brain surgery to help localize areas that need to be avoided.

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29
Q

Split Brain Patients

A

some people are born without a corpus callosum or have to have the corpus callosum surgically removed due to severe seizures. You can test specialization by presenting tests to just one hemisphere and seeing how the patient performs. This is a test of lateralization of function.

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30
Q

Forebrain: The Frontal Lobe

A

planning and directing future actions, controlling movements. The frontal lobe has no primary sensory cortex, unlike the three other lobes.

  • Primary motor cortex
  • Central sulcus
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31
Q

Forebrain: Frontal Lobe: Primary Motor Cortex

A

– controls skeletal muscle for all voluntary movements and for automatic programmed movements such as walking, chewing and talking.
- located within the precentral gyrus.

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32
Q

Forebrain: Frontal Lobe: Central Sulcus

A
  • divides the precentral gyrus/primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex.
  • separates the primary somatosensory cortex from the primary motor cortex by the central sulcus
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33
Q

Forebrain: Parietal Lobe

A
  • somatic sensation and perception of the body
  • Primary somatosensory cortex
  • postcentral gryrus
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34
Q

Forebrain: Parietal Lobe: Primary Somatosensory Cortex

A

the sensation from anything that touches your body surface goes to this cortex.
located in the postcentral gryrus

35
Q

Forebrain: Occipital Lobe

A

vision

Contains the primary visual cortex that is the first level of sensory processing

36
Q

Forebrain: Temporal Lobe

A

hearing and aspects of learning, memory and emotion. Separated by other regions in your cortex by the sylvian fissure.
Contains the primary auditory cortex

37
Q

Forebrain: 4 Lobes

A
  • Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
  • Each lobe contains its own association cortex – responsible for integrating actions of primary sensory and motor cortex.
38
Q

Forebrain: Subcortical: Hypothalamus *

A

receives visceral information and control visceral and endocrine functions (hormonal control) *

39
Q

Forebrain: Subcortical: Thalamus *

A

receives and integrates somatic (body—skin and muscles) information *

40
Q

Forebrain: Subcortical: Limbic System *

A

A group of interconnected structures responsible for emotions, memory and motivated behaviors *

41
Q

Forebrain: Subcortical: Basil Ganglia *

A

a group of structures important for motor control and cognition *

42
Q

Midbrain

A
  • Tectum:
    Superior colliculi
    Inferior colliculi
  • Tegmentum
43
Q

Midbrain: Tectum

A

Superior colliculi – visual motor reflexes

Inferior colliculi – auditory motor reflexes

44
Q

Midbrain: Tegmentum

A

plays a role in sleep, arousal, and attention

45
Q

Hindbrain

A 
Located just above the spinal cord and is responsible for relaying motor commands from the cortex and bringing in sensory information.
 Key components of the hindbrain:
Pons 
Cerebellum 
Medulla oblongata
46
Q

Hindbrain: Pons

A

motor relay area

47
Q

Hindbrain: Cerebellum

A

control and coordinate voluntary movement; has three layers, with a purkinje cell layer, a granule cell layer, and molecular layer.

48
Q

Hindbrain: Medulla Oblongata

A

crucial for basic life functions such as breathing, heart beating, digestive reflexes etc. Part of the reticular formation with the midbrain.

49
Q

CNS: Spinal Cord

A

Cervical region – information to/from neck and arms
Thoracic region – information to/from back and chest
Lumbar region – information to/from legs
Sacral region – information to/from pelvis and viscera

50
Q

Orientation and Planes of Section

A

For humans, because of that bend at the midbrain, our nervous system is not linear. For us, orientation above the midbrain is the same as we described in the last slide, but spinal cord orientation changed because our spinal cords have changed orientation

51
Q

Orientation Above the Midbrain

A

Dorsal=superior – backside (towards sky)
Ventral=inferior – belly side (toward the earth)
Rostral=anterior – front (towards the snout/beak)
Caudal=posterior – tail end

52
Q

Orientation Below the Midbrain

A 
Below the midbrain:
Anterior=ventral
Posterior=dorsal
Superior=rostral
Inferior=caudal
53
Q

Glial Cells

A
  • exist within the brain to support neuronal function
  • each different type has a distinct function
  • There are more of these than neurons in the nervous system
  • Dysfunction in either neurons or glial these can significantly disrupt normal neuronal function
54
Q

Glial Cells: Ependymal Cells

A

– make the fluid that bathes the brain, called cerebrospinal fluid

55
Q

Glial Cells: Astrocytes

A

– help maintain a protective barrier in the brain called the blood brain barrier. Also maintain blood flow

56
Q

Glial Cells: Microglia

A

– main source of immune defense in the brain/spinal cord

57
Q

Glial Cells: Myelin

A

– wrap around axons to help speed up neuronal signaling
Oligodendrocytes – in the brain and spinal cord
Schwann cells – outside the brain and spinal cord

58
Q

Glial Cells: Components: Mircotubules

A

– thick, very long protein fibers that act as conveyor belts for transporting proteins to where they need to go within the cell (i.e. to dendrites or axon terminals)

59
Q

Glial Cells: Components: Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

– read RNA and make the proteins the cell needs.
Neurons have a lot of rough ER because the neurons are constantly in need of proteins and neurotransmitters for neuronal signaling

60
Q

you are doing aMAZING SWEETIE

A

stay on that GRIND SIS

61
Q

The Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

A
  • protects your brain from much of what is present in the bloodstream
  • crucial for your survival, as brain infections or damage have the potential to severely diminish brain function.
  • formed by blood vessels that have specialized protein barrier between the individual vascular cells.
62
Q

BBB Non-fenestrated Blood Vessels

A
  • the blood vessels are non-fenestrated, meaning there are barriers preventing substances from entering.
  • The barriers are formed by tight junctions i.e. proteins between the vascular cells that prevent passage of substances. The tight junctions are supported in part by the astrocytes.
63
Q

Key Differences between BBB Capillaries and Normal Capillaries:

A
  1. Fenestrated in normal capillary, brain capillary non-fenestrated (tight junctions)
  2. Astrocytes surround BBB capillary unlike typical capillary
  3. Channels present in BBB capillary to transport substances unlike with typical capillary
64
Q

What can get through the BBB?

A
  • Small, fat-soluble substances typically get through whereas large bulky drugs do not
  • Some substances are actually detrimental to your brain function, but are still able to get through, such as alcohol.
65
Q

Circumventricular Organs (CVOs

A
  • are exceptions in the brain because they do not contain the BBB.
  • The area postrema
  • Other areas include secretory organs (i.e. hormone release)
66
Q

The Area Postrema

A
  • within the CVOs, does not contain a BBB.
  • This area lacks tight junctions between the vascular cells and this allows the area postrema to detect noxious substances your blood stream and respond.
  • The main response is to induce vomitting.
67
Q

Meninges

A

Immediately under your skull are membranes

  • another major “defense” your brain AND spinal cord have against damage.
  • These membranes have three layers: the pia, arachnoid and dura.
68
Q

Meninges: Dura Mater

A

– A tough layer that lines the skull

69
Q

Meninges: Arachnoid Mater

A

– a web-like layer below the dura mater. Beneath this layer is a fluid-filled space called the subarachnoid space, that contains large blood vessels

70
Q

Meninges: Pia Mater

A

– located below the subarachnoid space, this layer adheres to the CNS itself. It goes deep into the sulci and covers the cortex, cerebellum, brain stem and spinal cord.

71
Q

The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

A
  • a clear fluid that provides cushioning support for the brain, as well as basic immunological support.
  • present in the subarachnoid space as well as the ventricles within the brain
72
Q

Ventricles

A
  • filled with CSF provide cushioning support for the brain against mechanical trauma.
  • They are another big defense mechanism your brain has against damage.
73
Q

Interconnected Ventricles in the Brain

A

Lateral ventricles – one in each hemisphere
Third ventricle
Fourth ventricle
-The flow of CSF is from lateral ventricles->third ventricle->fourth ventricle. After exiting the final ventricle, the CSF goes into the central canal of the spinal cord after which it will be reabsorbed venous system.

74
Q

The Cerebral Aqueduct

A

connects the third and fourth ventricles and CSF must pass through this region to get to the fourth ventricle.

75
Q

Where is CSF made?

A
  • Modified ependymal cells together with specialized capillaries form the choroid plexus, which is where CSF is made.
  • There are choroid plexus cells in all components of the ventricular system
76
Q

Neuronal Structure: Cell Body (Soma)

A
  • contains the nucleus and much of the machinery that maintains cellular function.
77
Q

Neuronal Structure: Dendrites

A

– receive signals from the axons of other neurons and help relay that signal to the axon

78
Q

Neuronal Structure: Axon

A
  • extension of a neuron that sends information to other neurons/cells. Each neuron only has one axon.
  • The size (diameter) and length of the axons vary depending on function.
  • Short=local circuit neurons that stay within a certain region or very long if they communicate between regions or to different body parts.
79
Q

Neuronal Structure: Axon

A
  • have varying degrees of “insulation” called myelin.
  • Axon hillock is site of action potential generation, located at the start of the axon
  • can send collaterals to many different dendrites
  • divergence describes the number of targets innervated by a neuron
80
Q

Neuronal Communication

A
  • The key to neurons is that they communicate with each other.
  • Most neurons communicate by releasing a chemical, called a neurotransmitter
  • Signaling between neurons occurs at synapses
81
Q

Neuronal Communication: Axon Terminal

A

(aka presynaptic side) – end of axon specialized to release neurotransmitter

82
Q

Neuronal Communication: Synaptic Cleft

A
  • the narrow space inside the synapse where neurotransmitters are released
83
Q

Neuronal Communication: Dendrite

A

(aka postsynaptic side) – specialized to respond to neurotransmitter

84
Q

Neuronal Communication: Synaptic Transmission

A

-The signaling between neurons
-The presynaptic side contains neurotransmitter in synaptic vesicles.
-When stimulated by an electrical signal, the vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
-Thus, signaling is axon/presynaptic side to dendrite/postsynaptic side in typical neuronal signaling.
Axo-dendritic – typical neuronal signaling
Axo-axonic – an axon synapses onto another
Axo-somatic – an axon synapses onto a cell body
-Signaling can be excitatory or inhibitory

Fundamentals of Neuroscience (10 decks)

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