EXAM 1 REVIEW Flashcards
specialized area of biology that deals with living things ordinarily too small to be seen without magnification
microbiology
invisible to the naked eye
microscopic
a living thing ordinarily too small to be seen without magnification; an organism of microscopic size
microorganisms
microorganism
microbes
category of prokaryotes w/ peptidoglycan in their cell walls and circular chromosome(s). This group of small cells is widely distributed in the earth’s habitats.
bacteria
microscopic, acellular agent composed of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat
viruses
a group of single-celled, eukaryotic organisms
protozoa
term that designates all parasitic worms
helminths
macroscopic and microscopic heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that can be uni- or multicellular
fungi
a member of the domain Eukarya whose cells have a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; includes plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, and algae
eukaryote
a single-celled organism that does not have special structures such as a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; includes bacteria and archaea
prokaryote
accumulation of changes that occur in organisms as they adapt to their environments
evolution
evidence cited to explain how evolution occurs
theory of evolution
process occurring in plants, algae, and some bacteria that traps the sun’s energy and converts it to ATP in the cell. This energy is used to fix CO2 into organic compounds.
photosynthesis
breakdown of dead matter and wastes into simple compounds that can be directed back into the natural cycle of living things
decomposition
field involving deliberate alteration (recombination) of the genomes of microbes, plants , and animals though special technological processes
genetic engineering
technology aka genetic engineering; deliberately modifies the genetic structure of an organism to create novel products, microbes, animals, plants and viruses
recombinant DNA technology
decomposition of harmful chemicals by microbes or consortia of microbes
bioremediation
any agent that causes diseases; usually a virus, bacterium, fungus, protozoan, or helminth
pathogens
prokaryotic single celled organisms of primitive origin that have unusual anatomy, physiology, and genetics and live in harsh habitats
archaea
one of the three domains of living organisms, as proposed by Woese; contains all eukaryotic organisms
eukarya
an elementary virus particle in its complete morphological and thus infectious form; consists of nucleic acid core surrounded by a capsid, which can be enclosed in an envelope
virion
an organism that lives on or within another organism (the host), from which it obtains nutrients and enjoys protection; produces some degree of harm in the host
parasites
small component of eukaryotic cells that is bounded by a membrane and specialized in function
organelles
organism in which smaller organisms or viruses live, feed and reproduce
hosts
early belief that living things arose from vital forces present in nonliving or decomposing matter
spontaneous generation
belief in spontaneous generation as a source of life
abiogenesis
a complex association that arises from a mixture of microorganisms growing together on the surface of a habitat
biofilms
a techniques that amplifies segments of DNA for testing.; using denaturation, primers, and heat-resistant DNA polymerase, the number can be increased several-million-fold
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of knowledge, involving the recognition and formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experimentation and the formation and testing of a hypothesis.
scientific method
tentative explanation of what has been observed or measured
hypothesis
collection of statements, propositions, or concepts, that explains or accounts for a natural event
theory
completely free from all life forms, including spores and viruses
sterile
method of handling microbial cultures, patient specimens, and other sources of microbes in a way that prevents infection of the handler and other who may be exposed
aseptic techniques
originated in 1800s that proposed that microorganisms can be the cause of diseases; established in the present time that is tis considered a fact
germ theory of disease
a set system for scientifically naming organisms, enzymes, anatomical structures, and so on
nomenclature
formal system for organizing, classifying, and naming living things
taxonomy
taxonomic categories
taxa
scientific method of assigning names to organisms that employs two names to identify every organism- genus name plus species name
binomial system
the broadest general category to which an organism is assigned member share only one or a few general characteristics
domain
second division of classification
kingdom
third level of classification
phylum
alternate term for phylum
division
division of organisms that follows phylum
class
division of organisms that follows class; increasing similarity may be noticed among organisms assigned to the same order
order
midlevel division of organisms that groups more closely related organism than previous levels
family
second most specific level
genus
most specific level of organization
species
levels of power; arrangement in order of rank
hierarchies
bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, protozoa, helminths
major microbe groups
When did bacteria, archaea, eukaryotes arise?
2.9 billion years ago
What important roles do microbes play on earth for life to exist?
play centrals roles essential to life-nutrient cycling, decomposition, maintain atmosphere and regulate temperature
What is the rank of infectious disease death in the US for: lower respiratory flu/pneumonia
lower respiratory: #3 (141,00) flu/pneumonia: #8 (56,000
What is the rank of infectious disease death worldwide for lower respiratory from flu/pneumonia, diarrheal disease, HIV/AIDS and TB (in order)?
3: lower respiratory from flu/pneumonia (3.5 million) #5: diarrheal disease (2.5 million) #6: HIV/AIDS (1.8 million) #8: TB (1.3 million)
What is pneumonia and what can cause it?
inflammation of alveoli, fluid can be caused by influenza, a different virus or bacteria
Why is the flu more severe this season?
H3N2 mutates faster more difficult to grow H3N2 in eggs in the process of adapting virus to grow in eggs, introduce further changes to the virus, which may impair effectiveness of vaccine flu shots 30% effective
What is the most infectious microbe (non-human transmission)?
malaria
What is the most infectious microbe (human to human transmission)?
measles
What are some examples of emerging diseases?
SARS MERS Lassa fever Ebola HIV Nipah virus
What are some examples of re-emerging diseases?
yellow fever cholera plague dengue whooping cough (pertussis) West Nile measles
What are some examples of diseases considered noninfectious, now found to be caused by microbes?
gastric ulcers: caused by Helicobacter pylori link between cancers and bacteria and viruses Cocksackie virus associated with diabetes Borna agent linked to schrizophenia
About 10X smaller than eukaryotic cells lack organelles single celled
bacterial and Archaeal cells
Consist of ribosomes, chromosomes, cell wall, cell membrane and flagellum
Bacteria and Archaea
Consists of ribosomes, nucleus, mitochondria, cell membrane, flagellum
Eukaryotes
Consist of envelope, Capsid, nucleic acid
Virus
Is a virus considered a cell?
No
What is an example of a helminth?
Taenia solium (looks like a worm with a head)
What is an example of a fungus?
Syncephalastrum (looks like a flower)
What is an example of protozoan?
Vorticella (looks like little vortex of a tornado)
What is an example of a bacterium?
E. coli (looks like little tiny eggs like lice)
What is an example of a virus?
Herpes simplex (looks like craters)
Where are the majority of microorganisms found and are they harmful?
habitats such as soil and water either harmless or beneficial
What type of microbe is harbored and nourished by the host; causes damage and disease in the host; and some have symbiotic relationships?
Parasites
Who performed the experiment disproving spontaneous generation?
Francesco Redi
What experiments disproved spontaneous generation?
Placed meat into two jars and covered one with fine gauze, preventing flies form lading on it leaving the other uncovered (Redi) Showed that the dust in in air were the source of growth in infusions and broth (Pasteur)
Who provided the earliest record of microbes by using a single-lens microscope made by himself?
Robert Hooke
Who made a crude microscope to examine threads in fabrics, made drawings of what he called “animalcules” in rainwater and scraped from his teeth; discovered first live cells?
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Who observed that mothers who gave birth at home experienced fewer infections than mothers who gave birth in the hospital?
Oliver Wendell Holmes
Who showed quite clearly that women became infected in the maternity ward after examinations by physicians coming directly from the autopsy room?
Ignaz Semmelweiz
Who was the first to introduce aseptic techniques such as hand washing and misting operating rooms with antiseptic chemicals to reduce microbe number?
Joseph Lister
Who invented pasteurization and completed some of the first studies showing that human diseases could arise from infection?
Louis Pasteur
Who linked a specific microorganism with a specific disease, established a set of proofs that verified the germ theory of disease, showed anthrax caused by Bacillus anthracis, invented inoculation, isolation, media, culture maintenance and specimen prep?
Robert Koch
What is it called when you make an observation and create a general principle?
inductive reasoning
What is called when you make an observation using an accepted general principle as a guide to explain specific observations?
deductive reasoning
Science is a process of _________?
observation, experimentation and reasoning
What are the levels of classification from most general to most specific? “Dear Katie Please Come Over For Great Snacks”
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
What is the proper way to write a scientific name?
Genus/Species name Genus name is always capitalized/can be abbreviated Species name always begin with lower case Both names should be italicized when in print or underlined when written
tangible materials that occupy space and have mass
matter
smallest particle of an element to retain all the properties of that element
atom
elementary particle that carries a positive charge, identical to the nucleus of they hydrogen atom
protons
electrically neutral particle in the nuclei of all atoms except hydrogen
neutrons
negative charged subatomic particle that is distributed around the nucleus in an atom
electrons
substance comprising only one kind of atom that cannot be degraded into two or more substances without losing its chemical characteristics
elements
version of an element that is virtually identical in all chemical properties to another version except that their atoms have slightly different atomic masses
isotopes
pathways of electrons as they rotate around the nucleus of an atom
orbitals
distinct chemical substance that results from the combination of two or more atoms
molecule
molecules that are combination of two or more different elements
compounds
link formed between molecules when tow or more atoms share, donate, or accept electrons
chemical bonds
combining power of an atom based upon the number of electrons it can either take on or give up
valence
chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between 2 atoms
covalent bonds
a molecule with asymmetrical distribution of charges, such a molecule has a positive and a negative pole
polar
electrically neutral molecule formed by covalent bonds between atoms that have the same or similar electronegativity
nonpolar
aqueous dissociation of an electrolyte into ions
ionization
unattached, charged particle
ions
positive charged ion
cations
negative charged ion
anions
any compound that ionizes in solution and conducts current in an electrical field
electrolytes
weak chemical bond formed by attraction of forces between molecules or atoms in this case hydrogen and either oxygen or nitrogen; electrons are not shared , lost or gained.
hydrogen bond
redox reactions in which paired sets of molecules participate in electron transfers
oxidation reduction
denoting an oxidation-reduction reaction
redox
weak attractive interactions between molecules of low polarity
van der Waals forces
molecules entering or starting a chemical reaction
reactants
substance that is left after a reaction is complete
products
substance that alters the rate of a reaction without being consumed or permanently changed by it. Example: enzymes
catalysts
mixture of one or more substances (solutes) that cannot be separated by filtration or ordinary settling
solution
substance that is uniformly dispersed in a dissolving medium or solvent
solutes
dissolving medium
solvent
the addition of water as in the coating of ions with water molecules as ions enter into aqueous solution
hydrated
property of attracting water
hydrophilic
property of repelling water
hydrophobic
expression of the amount of a solute dissolved in a certain amount of solvent; may be defined by weight, volume or percentage
concentration
solution with a pH value below 7 on the pH scale
acidic
solution with a pH value above 7 on the pH scale
basic
system for rating acidity and alkalinity
pH
process of combining an acid and a base until they reach a balanced proportion with a pH value close to 7
neutralization
totality of chemical and physical processes occurring in a cell
metabolism
molecules that lack the basic framework of the elements of carbon and hydrogen
inorganic chemicals
molecules that contain the basic framework of the element of carbon and hydrogen
organic chemicals
molecular combination that reacts in predictable ways and confers particular properties on a compound Example: —-COOH,—OH, —-CHO
functional groups
study of organic compounds produced by living things Example: carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
biochemistry
large molecular compounds assembled from smaller subunits most notably biochemicals
macromolecules
simple molecule that can be linked by chemical bonds to form larger molecules
monomers
macromolecule made of a chain of repeating units Example: starch, protein, DNA
polymers
compound containing primarily carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in 1:2:1 ratio
carbohydrate
sugar; simple carbohydrate
saccharide
simple sugar such as glucose that is a basic building block for more complex carbohydrates
monosaccharide
sugar containing 2 monosaccharides Example sucrose= fructose + glucose
disaccharide
carbohydrate that can be hydrolyzed into a number of monosaccharides Examples: cellulose, starch, glycogen
polysaccharide
monosaccharide with 5 carbon atoms per molecule Example: arabinose, ribose, xylose
pentoses
6-carbon sugar such as glucose and fructose
hexoses
carbohydrate commonly referred as sugar, contain a 6-carbon structure
glucose
fruit sugars
fructose
sugars found in milk
lactose
fermentable sugars formed from starch
maltose
common table or cane sugar
sucrose
bond that joins monosaccharides to form disaccharides and polymers
glycosidic bonds
one carbon molecule gives up its OH group and the other loses the H from its OH group thereby producing a water molecule; happens during the formation of a carbohydrate bond
dehydration synthesis
long, fibrous polymer composed of B-glucose (most common substances on earth
cellulose
polysaccharide found in seaweed and commonly used to prepare solid culture media
agar
network of polysaccharide chains cross-linked by short peptides that forms the rigid part of bacterial cell walls; gram negative bacteria have smaller amount of this rigid structure than do gram positive bacteria
peptidoglycan
polysaccharide similar to cellulose in chemical structure. makes up the horny substance of the exoskeletons of arthropods and certain fungi
chitin
molecular complex of lipid and carbohydrate found in eh bacterial cell wall. In negative gram bacteria is an endotoxin with generalized pathologic effects such as fever
lipopolysaccharide
filamentous network of carbohydrate-rich molecules that coats cells
glycocalyx
glucose polymer stored by cells
glycogen
process in which water is used to break bonds in molecules; usually occurs in conjunction with an enzyme
hydrolysis
lipid composed of glycerol molecule bond to 3 fatty acids
triglycerides
3 carbon alcohol with 3 OH groups that serve as binding sites
glycerol
compose a major structural component of cell membranes
phospholipids
thin double-layered sheet composed of lipids such as phospholipids and sterols and proteins
membrane
a conceptualization of the molecular architecture of cellular membranes as a bilipid layer containing proteins. Membranes proteins are embedded to some degree in this bilayer, where they float freely about
fluid-mosaic model
best known member of a group of lipids called steroids; commonly found in cell membranes and animal hormones
cholesterol
predominant organic molecule in cells, formed by long chains of amino acids
proteins
building blocks of protein
amino acids
covalent union between 2 amino acids that forms between the amine group of one and the carboxyl group of the other; basic bond of proteins
peptide bond
molecule composed of short chains of amino acids
peptide
initial protein organization described by type, number and order of amino acids in the chain
primary structure
protein structure that occurs when the functional groups on the outer surface of the molecule interact by forming hydrogen bonds which cause the amino acids chain to either twist, forming a helix or to pleat in an accordion pattern called a B-pleated sheet
secondary structure
protein structure that results from additional bonds forming between functional groups in a secondary structure creating a 3D mass
tertiary structure
sulfide containing amino acid that usually produces covalent disulfide bonds in an amino acid sequence contributing to the tertiary structure of the protein
cysteine
most complex protein structure characterized by the formation of large, multiunit proteins by more than one of the polypeptides; typical of antibodies and some enzymes that act in cell synthesis
quaternary structure
protein biocatalyst that facilitates metabolic reactions
enzymes
large protein molecules evoked in response to an antigen that interacts specifically with that antigen
antibodies
nucleic acid; carries the master plan for an organism’s heredity
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
basic structural unit of DNA/RNA; consists of a phosphate, a sugar and a nitrogenous base
nucleotides
nitrogen-containing molecule found in DNA and RNA that provide the bases for the genetic code
nitrogen base
acidic salt containing phosphorus and oxygen that is an essential inorganic component of DNA, RNA and ATP
phosphate
nitrogen bases that help form the genetic code on DNA and RNA
pyrimidines
nitrogen base found in DNA and RNA with a purine form
adenine
nitrogen base found in DNA and RNA in the purine form
guanine
nitrogen base found in DNA but not in RNA in a pyrimidine form
thymine
nitrogen base found in DNA and RNA with a pyrimidine form
cytosine
nitrogen base found in RNA but not DNA in pyrimidine form
uracil
5-carbon monosaccharide found in RNA
ribose
5 carbon sugar that is an important component of DNA
deoxyribose
nucleotide that is the primary source of energy to cells
adenosine triphosphate
individual membrane bound living entity, the smallest unit capable of an independent existence
cell
What is the difference between an atom and an ion?
atom has no charge while and ion has a charge
What happens when you change proton, neutron, electron numbers of an element?
change neutron=isotope change protons= changes the element change electron=ion
What is the # of electrons present in an atom called?
electron configuration Shell 1 can fill 2 electrons Shell 2 can fill 8 electrons
What is the # in the outermost shell called and determines the degrees of reactivity and type of bonds it can make?
valence electrons
What is the strongest bond?
covalent bond
What is the weakest bond?
hydrogen bond
What happens when an atom gains/loses electrons?
It becomes an ion forming ionic bonds
What happens if the atom shares electrons?
forms covalent bonds
charge attraction between 2 ions (cation & anion)
ionic bonds
What is the difference between polar and non polar covalent bond?
electrons are not shared equally in polar covalent bond.
What is a bond formed between 2 polar molecules?
hydrogen bond
What is the attraction of an atom for the electrons in a covalent bond?
electronegativity
What happens when an atom is more electronegative?
pulls shared electrons more strongly to itself
Why is an ionic bond stronger than a hydrogen bond?
The attractions between the full charges of ions are stronger than the partial attractions found in hydrogen bonds.
How do substances dissolve?
cations are attracted to the negatively charged oxygen and anions are attracted to the positive charged hydrogen in water molecules polarity of water allows hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules each ion becomes hydrated
What types of substances can dissolve and why?
hydrophilic substances because their polar molecules or ions are water loving
How to calculate pH of H?
pH=exponent Example: 10^2 pH= 2
How to calculate pH of OH
pH= 14-exponent Example: 10^4 M 14-exponent (14-10=10)= 10 pH=10
What are functional groups?
molecular groups that make up macromolecules
Alcohols and carbohydrates are what functional group?
hydroxyl
What functional group is carbon double bonded to oxygen?
carbonyl
found in amino acids and acts as an acid (functional group)
carboxyl
acts as a base (NH2 or NH3+), found in amino acids (functional group)
amino
Functional group found in lipids
esters
Functional group found in proteins
sulfhydryl
Functional group found in DNA, RNA, ATP, high energy group
phosphate
What are the 4 classes of biological molecules?
carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acides
What are 3 types of lipids?
fats
phopholipids
steroids
waxes
What are long term energy storage molecules in animals, insulation, wrap neurons increase conductivity and are composed of 1 glycerol covalently attached to 3 fatty acids?
Triglycerides
How are amino acides classified?
Based on R group (side group)
nonpolar AA
Polar AA
Electrically charged AA
Which bases are purine?
adenine
guanine
What bases are pyrimidine?
Thymine
Cytosine
Uracil
Thymine pairs up with ______ in DNA?
Adenine
Adenine pairs up with ________ in RNA?
Uracil
Cytosine pairs up with ________ in RNA/DNA?
Guanine
What are the 3 types of RNA
message RNA: copy of a gene
transfer RNA: carrier that transports the correct AAs to the ribosome
ribosomal RNA: comprises the ribosome
What is the structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and function?
adenine
ribose
3 phosphate molecules
Releases energy when the bond is broken betwen the 2nd and 3rd phosphates
culture
The visible accumulation of microorganisms in or on a nutrient medium. Also, the propagation of microorganisms with various media.
A nutrient used to grow organisms outside of their natural habitats.
medium
The implantation of microorganisms into or upon culture media.
innoculation
Completely free of all life forms, including spores and viruses.
sterile
What are the 5 Is in order?
- inoculation
- incubation
- isolation
- inspection
- identification
What are the 3 types of media?
liquid
solid
semisolid
What is the purpose of media?
to provide microbes with all of their required nutrients in an artifical medium
water based solutions that do not solidify at temps above freezing, flow freely
Example: broths, milks, infusion
Liquid media
Clot like consistency at room temp, thickens but no firm surface, used to determine motility of bacteria
semisolid media
porivdes a firm surface upon which cells can form discrete colonies; used to isolate bacteria and fungi; can heat it up , liquefy it, cool it solidify it again
solid media
What are the 3 types of hemolysins
gamma hemolysis
beta hemolysis
alpha hemolysis
What type of hemolysin has no hemolysis?
gamma hemolysis
What hemolysin complete lysis of red blood cells
beta hemolysis
What hemolysin is an incomplete lysis of red blood cells
alpha hemolysis
The greater the difference in composition between 2 substances, the great the _________ will be.
Refraction
How does light travel?
Visible light travels in wavelengths, behaves as a particle called photons.
The smaller the wavelength the higher the energy.
What are the 3 properties of an effective microscope?
magnification
resolution
contrast
forms real image
objective lens
forms virtual image received by teh eye and converted into a retinal or visual image
ocular lens
Objective lens and ocular lens is used in________.
magnification
capacity to separate 2 adjacent objects from one another (visually)
determined by a combo of characteristics of the objective lens and wavelength of light being used to illuminate sample
resolution
Refractive index can be found in ___________.
Contrast
most widely used type light microscope
ligth transmitted through speciment
specimen is darker than its surroundings
used for live, preserved, stained or unstained specimens
Bright-Field Microscope
prevents light form entering objective lens from condenser
specimen is illumiatned, surrounding is dark
living cells cannot be heated, dried or stained
Dark Field Microscope
Uses different density of parts of speciment to visualize intracellular structures
cell organelles are denser than cytoplasm
light patter varies in contrast
used to observe intracellular
Phase-Contrast Microscope
bacteria stain purple
gram-positive bacteria
bacteria stain pink
gram-negative
detects peptidoglycan
gram + have peptidoglycan
gram - have no peptidoglycan
gram stain
isolate a sample culture in a temperature controlled envrionment to encourage growth
incubation
The term culture refers to the ______ growth of microorganisms in ___________.
macroscopic, media
What is a mixed culture?
one that contains two or more known species
Resolution is _________ with a longer wavelength of light.
worsened
