EXAM 1 REVIEW Flashcards
Aristotle
Developed the concept of associationism.
Believed that memory depends on the formation of associations, for which there are 3 principles:
- Contiguity
- Frequency
- Similarity
Loved gathering data, was the first popular Greek philosopher to emphasize natural observation, not just intuition and logic.
An empiricist.
Studied under Plato, who studied under Socrates.
associationism
Aristotle’s idea that memory depends on the formation of linkages (associations) between events, sensations, and ideas. He recognized that recalling of experiencing one thing elicits a memory or anticipation of another thing that a person has mentally linked to it beforehand
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B.F. Skinner
Radical Behaviorism
The Skinner Box: automated learning apparatus
Found out (by accident) that rats learn as quickly and as frequently as when they are rewarded on every trial, sometimes even better!
Researched how learning is affected by the reliability with which the an organism’s responses result in the desired consequence
During World War II, Skinner began the Pigeon Project to use pidgins for missile guidance systems. This was never put in action.
behaviorism
Argued that the field of psychology should restrict itself to observable behaviors and avoid reference to unobservable, often ill-defined mental events.
Behaviorists thought that psychology should be dealt with as a natural science, with scientific experiments and methods.
John Watson
Clark Hull
B. F. Skinner
classical (Pavlovian) conditioning
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confounds
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cognitive revolution
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conditioned emotional response
W. K. Estes and B.F. Skinner
A new technique for studying learned fear
Foot shock and freezing behavior in rats
Cognitive Psychology
connectionist models
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contiguity
Nearness in time and/or space.
Events experienced at the same time (temporal contiguity) or in the same place (spatial contiguity) tend to be associated
One of Aristotle’s 3 principles of Association.
control/experimental group
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correlational study
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distributed representation
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dualism
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empiricism
The concept that knowledge is gained through experience.
The Greek word “Empiricus” means “Experience”
Aristotle was the 1st empiricist
Aristile, John Locke, William James, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike
eugenics
Responsible for the Concept of Eugenics.
Encouraged marriage & procreation among the healthiest, strongest, and most intelligent members of society. Discouraged child-bearing in the mentally ill physically “unfit.”
Applied Darwin’s Natural Selection to the human condition.
Contributed to the Holocaust, thousands of forced sterilizations in the U.S., and other movements of “ethnic cleansing.”
Greek word for “well-born”: eugenes.
experimental psychology
A branch of psychology in which psychological theories are tested by experiment, rather than merely by observation of natural events.
The field of psychology began to be treated as an actual science.
- Herman Ebbinghaus = father of experimental psych
- Ivan Pavlov
- Edward Thorndike
extinction
The process of Reducing a LEARNED Response to a stimulus by ceasing to pair that stimulus with a reinforcement or punishment.
Pavlov, Classical Conditioning
generalization
The ability to transfer past learning to novel events and problems.
When one transfers what it has learned about one stimulus to another similar stimuli.
Herman Ebbinghaus
Began the movement into Experimental psychology.
Sought to explain the phenomena of memory with mathematical equations.
Not a wealthy man; did not own a lab, so he did experiments on himself.
Tested his own memory of nonsense words that he found in the book Through the Looking Glass.
Retention curves, forgetting, relearning
independent and dependent variable
independent variable: The thing that is manipulated in a study.
dependent variable: the observed thing whose change is being measured
instrumental (operant) conditioning
The kind of training in which subjects learn to make responses in order to obtain a reinforcement or avoid a punishment.
Think Edward Thorndike, Law of Effect
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist
Developed methods for animal learning.
Got a Nobel Prize for his research on saliva and digestion.
Noticed that dogs salivated when they heard the steps of the lab attendant who generally fed them.
In one experiment, they rang a doorbell before feeding the dogs until the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell.
This is Classical Conditioning!!
Used the analogy of the telephone.
learning curves, extinction,
John Watson
Father of Behaviorism
Found that rats had learned na automatic set of motor habits for moving through a maze, and that these habits were largely independent of external sensory cues.
Strong Empiricist, followed Locke’s ideas.
Ambitious, self-made
Had an affair with his research assistant, which blew up in the media.
johns Hopkins University gave him the option of ending then affair or leaving the university. He kept the assistant, left his wife, and left the university.
Then he entered the world of marketing. Invited Taste Tests and other advertising & marketing strategies
latent learning
Learning that takes place even when there’s no specific training to obtain or avoid a certain thing. Learning that is not motivated by external reinforcement/punishment.
Edward Tolman!!
Law of Effect
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learning curve
A graph showing learning performance (dependent v.) as a function of training time (independent v.)
Plots the number of training trials against the animals’ response
The Independent Variable, plotted on the Horizontal X-Axis: # of trainings
The Dependent Variable, plotted on the Vertical Y-Axis: animals’ response
Pavlov, Classical Conditioning
Maine de Biran
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nativism
The belief that most of our Knowledge is Inborn.
Plato was the first Nativist. He believed that our inborn knowledge was acquired during past lifetimes of the eternal soul.
The “Nature” side of nature vs. nurture
Plato, Rene Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Charles Darwin, Francis Galton
natural selection
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radical behaviorism
B. F. Skinner!!!
In his book “Beyond Freedom and Dignity,” Skinner advocated extreme behaviorism, in which he said that free will and consciousness are only illusions. He said that humans, like animals, only blindly produce learned responses to environmental stimuli.
reflex
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stimulus
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symbol manipulation models
Models of Learning & Memory that store & manipulate symbols and labeled links (links such as “is-married-to” or “type-of”)
Symbol = internal representation if concepts qualities, ideas, etc., of the external world
Herbert Simon
Cognitive Approach
William James
The very 1st formal psychologist
Got his medical degree and taught at Harvard.
Wrote the very 1st formal psychology textbook: Principles of Psychology
William James remembered a man that was an army veteran. The kids would yell “Attention!” and he would salute automaticlly from habit.
An Empiricist
James believed in Aristotle’s associationism.
His memory model: circles connected to each other. He believed this model mapped onto the brain
AMPA receptor
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Bell-Magendie law of neural specialization
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central nervous system (CNS)
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cerebral cortex
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computed tomography (CT)
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dendrites & spines
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difference image
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Donald Hebb
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electroencephalography (EEG)
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engram
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event-related potential (ERP)
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excitatory postsyanptic potential (EPSP)
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frontal lobe
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functional MRI (fMRI)
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ionic flow: diffusion & electrical charge
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immunocytochemistry
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inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
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Karl Lashley
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lesions, types
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localization of function
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long-term potentiation (LTP)
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LTP expression: pre- postsynaptic effects
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long-term depression (LTD)
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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NMDA receptor
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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neuromodulators
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neurophysiology
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neuropharmacology
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neurotransmitters
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occipital lobe
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parietal lobe
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peripheral nervous system (PNS)
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Phineas Gage
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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pre/postsynaptic neuron
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resting membrane potential
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receptors
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synapse
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synaptic plasticity
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synaptic integration (temporal & spatial)
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temporal lobe
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theory of equipotentiality
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topographic map / homunculus
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trancranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
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acoustic startle reflex
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Aplysia/glutamate signaling
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associative LTP
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cognitive map
an internal mental representation of the spatial layout of the external world
cortical plasticity
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discrimination training
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dishabituation
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dual process theory
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Entorhinal grid cells
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habituation
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heterosynaptic plasticity
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hippoampal place cells/fields
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homosynaptic plasticity
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landmark agnosia
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learned non-use
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mere exposure learning
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multimodal
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non-associative learning
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novel object recognition
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orienting response
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parahippocampal region
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perceptual learning
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priming
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receptive field
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sensitization
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sensory prosthetics
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spatial learning
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Rene Descartes
“I think, therefore I am”
Responsible for the concept of Dualism:
the principle that the mind and body exist as separate entities, each with different characteristics, governed by its own laws.
Believed that the body functioned by stimuli and responses, and that stimuli triggered “spirits.”
Descartes was a Nativist
believed that the body functioned by mechanical (especially hydraulic) principles.
John Locke
Responsible for the “Tabula Rasa” concept, that children are born
Believed that “all men are created equal.”
An Empiricist: Believed we come into the world knowing nothing, but that knowledge comes from experience.
Plato
Plato was the first Nativist. He believed that our inborn knowledge was acquired during past lifetimes of an eternal soul.
Plato studied under Socrates.
Erasmus Darwin
Proponent of Evolution, the idea that species change over time, with new traits/characteristics passed from one generation to the next.
He believed that one species could evolve into a completely different species eventually.
Charles Darwin’s and Francis Galton’s grandfather.
Personal Doctor to King George III of England
Jean Baptiste-Lamarck
Believed that a giraffe’s neck is long because the constant straining upward for leaves lengthened the giraffe’s neck. And then that acquired trait of a stretched neck would be passed to the offspring. Eventually, over many generations, the neck got longer and longer to what it is now.
For the most part, his beliefs were generally discredited. But in the past 5-10 years, his theories have been revisited with the advent of Epigenetics.
French Naturalist.
Charles Darwin
Traveld abord the H.M.S. Beagle to the Galapagos Islands. Studied Finch beaks.
Responsible for the theory of Natural Selection, the mechanism of evolution.
Proposed that species evolve when they possess a trait that meets 3 conditions:
- Inheritability: it must be that the trait can be passed from parents to offspring.
- Variability: The trait must have a range of forms among the individuals in that species.
- Fitness. The trait must increase the reproductive success of individuals.
Erasmus Darwin’s grandson
Francis Galton
Responsible for the Concept of Eugenics.
Encouraged marriage & procreation among the healthiest, strongest, and most intelligent members of society. Discouraged child-bearing in the mentally ill physically “unfit.”
Applied Darwin’s Natural Selection to the human condition.
Contributed to the Holocaust, thousands of forced sterilizations in the U.S., and other movements of “ethnic cleansing.”
Galton tried to assess the Efficacy of Prayer:
He hypothesized that prayer should increases the health & lifespan of persons been sprayed for.
Experimental group was the most prayed for members of society: “Ruling Monarchs.”
Control group was made people were not royal: Aristocrats & Commoners
Galton’s Hypothesis: the much-prayed-for monarchs of England should live longer, healthier lives than everyone else.
The average lifespan of English monarchy was 64 years, but that of English aristocracy was 67 years, and commoners lived even longer.
Galton concluded that prayer decreased longevity.
However, this correlational study had many confounds, such as diet, stress, and assassination.
Nativist. Convinced of his own genius, (he was a prodigy) he staunchly believed that people are not born equal
Invented finger-printing, and the concept of “Normal Distribution” that is used in statistics.
Grandson of Erasmus Darwin.
Edward Thorndike
Responsible for the Law of Effect Studied Instrumental (Operant) psychology
Student of William James.
Studied cats in puzzle cages.
Law of Effect:
If a particular response led to a DESIRABLE consequence, then the probability of the animal making that response again in the future is INCREASED.
If a particular response led to a UNDESIRABLE consequence, then the probability of the animal making that response again in the future is DECREASED.
Clark Hull
Clark Hull devoted himself to finding mathematical equations to describe learning phenomena.
He considered the value of incentive desirability, the subject’s motivation for reward, and the frequency of reward, among other factors in the process of learning
Disabled mentally and physically by typhoid fever and polio, but still conducted research!
Edward Tolman
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps!!
Latent Learning = Learning that takes place even when there’s no specific training to obtain or avoid a certain thing.
Cognitive Map = an internal mental representation of the spatial layout of the external world
One of the first to understand that there are many forms of learning.
Believed that learning was more than just stimuli and responses.
Considered that animals can form GOALS, without external motivation.
Argued that rats are intrinsically motivated to learn the general layout of mazes, forming a Cognitive Map.
He noticed that rats are able to find food by new alternative routes if their old one is blocked.
He showed that learning often occurs even when there’s no reward/punishment involved; learning can occur in neutral settings.
“Behavior Seeks Purpose”
Neo-Bahviorist: less staunchly behaviorist, but still a behaviorism.
(As oppose to Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism)
W. K. Estes
A new technique for studying learned fear
Foot shock and freezing behavior in rats.
Pigeons, yellow lights, pecking.
Stimulus Sampling Theory:
The idea that random variation is essential for learning.
Gave understanding to the randomness seen in both human and animal learning.
Helped explain why eve highly trained individuals don’t always make the same response perfectly over time.
Cognitive Psychology
Father of Mathematical Psychology
Gordon Bower
Learning by Insight
“aha moments”
Cognitive Approach
George Miller
Information Theory
The magic number 7 (plus or minus 2) concept applies to not just digits, but pictures, words, and even complex concepts.
Cognitive Approach
During World War II: worked with radios, hindering German communication and confusing signals
Studied relationships between speech, context, prior knowledge, universal quantitative memory trends, and communication.
Artificial Intelligence
The study of how to build computers that can perform behaviors that seem to require human intelligence.
Herbert Simon
Herbert Simon
Father of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence = Study of how to build computers that can perform behaviors that seem to require human intelligence.
Understood cognition in terms of Symbol Manipulation Models
Cognitive Approach
Thought that the brain worked like a computer: encoding, storing, and retrieving information
