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Nutritional Aspects of Health > Exam 1 - Nutrition > Flashcards

Exam 1 - Nutrition Flashcards

1
Q

Nutrition

A

science of food; the nutrients and the substances therein; their action, interaction, and balance in relation to health and disease

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2
Q

Nutrition (also)

A

The process by which the organism ingests, digests, absorbs, transports, utilizes, and excretes food substances

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3
Q

What are top 3 causes of death

A
  1. heart disease
  2. cancer
  3. stroke
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4
Q

Nutrients

A

substances essential for health that the body cannot make or makes in quantities too small to support kife

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5
Q

Characteristics of an essential nutrient

A
  • Has a specific biological function
  • Absence from the diet leads to decline in biological function
  • Adding missing substance bac to the diet before permanent damage occurs restores normal biological function
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6
Q

Functional categories of nutrients

A
  1. Provide energy for the body
  2. Promote growth and development, maintain body structures
  3. Regulates body processes; help maintain homeostasis
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7
Q

Energy yielding nutrients

A

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Protein

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8
Q

Non-energy yielding nutrients

A

Vitamins
Minerals

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9
Q

Macronutrients

A

needed in large amounts
- carbohydrates
- lipids
- proteins
- water

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10
Q

micronutrients

A

needed in smaller amounts
- vitamins
- minerals

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11
Q

Carbohydrates

A
  • composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
  • primarily obtained from fruits, vegetables, grains, and beans
  • provide 4 kcal/g
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12
Q

2 main types of carbohydrates

A

simple sugars: table sugar and glucose
complex carbohydrate: startch, glycogen, fiber

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13
Q

Lipids

A
  • also composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
  • insoluble in water
  • provide 9 kcal/g
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14
Q

fats

A

lipids that are solid at room temperature

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15
Q

oils

A

lipids that are liquid at room temperature

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16
Q

triglycerides

A
  • major form of fat in food and body
  • major energy source for the body
  • composed of 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone
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17
Q

saturated fats

A
  • mainly solid at room temperature
  • mainly found in animal sources
  • raise blood cholesterol levels
  • can lead to cardiovascular disease
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18
Q

unsaturated

A
  • mainly liquid at a room temperature
  • mainly found in plant sources
  • generally healthier than saturated fats
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19
Q

Essential fatty acids

A
  • unsaturated fatty acids that must be supplied by the diet: linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid
  • have important roles in the body: being structural components of cell walls, regulation BP and nerve transmission
  • can be found in vegetable oils and fish
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20
Q

trans fatty acids

A
  • unsaturated fats that have been processed from cis form to trans form
  • primarily found in deep-fried foods, baked snack foods, and solid fats
  • Pose a health risk - intake should be minimized
  • mostly removed from US food supply
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21
Q

proteins

A
  • composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
  • main structural components in the body
  • provide 4 kcal/g
  • formed from bonding of amino acids
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22
Q

Vitamins

A
  • enable chemical reactions to occur: serve as enzyme cofactors
  • do not directly provide energy (calories) but some vitamins help to break down energy-yielding nutrients
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23
Q

13 vitamins, 2 group

A
  • fat soluble: vitamin A, D, E, K; more likely to accumulate and cause toxicity
  • water soluble: vitamin C and B, more likely destroyed by cooking , excreted from the body more readily
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24
Q

Minerals

A
  • inorganic substances
  • not destroyed by cooking
  • yield no energy
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25
Q

Major groups of minerals

A
  • Major minerals: need more than 100mg daily, more than 5g in body
  • Trace minerals: need <100mg daily, less than 5 mg in body
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26
Q

water

A
  • needed in largest quantity
  • several vital functions: solvent, lubricant, transports nutrients, regulates body temperature
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27
Q

phytochemicals and zoochemicals

A
  • have health effect, but not essential nutrients
  • phytochemicals: plant origin
  • zoochemicals: animal origin
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28
Q

energy sources and uses

A
  • energy is needed to preform body functions and do work
  • alcohol provides energy not a nutrient
  • with energy we can: build new compounds, perform muscular movements, promote nerve transmission, maintain ion balance within cells
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29
Q

Calorie

A

amount of heath energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius
- very tiny number

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30
Q

Kilocalorie

A
  • amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of 100 grams of water by 1 degree Celsius
  • standard unit
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31
Q

Carbohydrate physiological fuel value

A

4 kcal/g

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32
Q

Fats physiological fuel value

A

9 kcal/g

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33
Q

Proteins physiological fuel value

A

4 kcal/g

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34
Q

Alcohol physiological fuel value

A

7 kcal/g

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35
Q

energy source calculation

A

grams of macronutrients x physiological fuel value = kcal

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36
Q

North American consume:

A
  • 16% of energy intake as proteins
  • 50% as carbohydrates
  • 33% as fats
  • these amounts are al within healthy ranges, but are problems
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37
Q

Problems with the North American Diet

A
  • too many calories are consumed
  • too much proteins from animal sources and too little from plants
  • too many carbohydrate from simple sugars; too few from complex carbohydrates
  • too much fat from animal sources; too little from plants
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38
Q

How to improve American diet

A
  • increase intake of foods rich in vitamins and minerals (except sodium)
  • decrease intake of sodium
  • moderating intake of sugary soft drinks and fatty foods
  • eat more fruits, vegetables, whole grain breads, and reduced fat dairy
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39
Q

What influences our food choices

A
  • daily food intake is a mix of our need to satisfy hunger and social and psychological needs
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40
Q

hunger

A

physical need for food

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41
Q

appetite

A

psychological desire to eat certain foods and reject other
- for most people in Western countries, appetite is what drives eating
- availability of food allows many factors to determine what we eat

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42
Q

optimal nutritional health status

A

vitamin/ mineral/ energy needs met, including modest storage

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43
Q

malnutrition

A

undernutrition and overnutrition

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44
Q

under nutrition

A
  • nutrient intake does not meet needs
  • nutrient stores are depleted
  • subclinical: early stage of nutrient deficiency
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45
Q

overnutrition

A

consumption of more nutrients than the body needs, most common type in industrialized nations: excess energy intake

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46
Q

Healthy people

A
  • report that provides science-based, 10 year national goals for improving the health of all Americans
  • main objective: help all people attain high-quality, longer lives free of disease, disability, injury, and premature death
  • 355 objectives covering main aspects of health, including nutrition
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47
Q

Reduce…

A
  • proportion of adults with obesity
  • household food insecurity and hunger
  • consumption of saturated fat, sugar, and added sugar b
  • iron deficiency in children and females
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48
Q

Increase…

A
  • fruit, vegetables, and whole grain consumption
  • calcium, potassium, and vitamins D consumption
  • proportion of students participating in school breakfast program
  • proportion of worksites that offer employee nutrition programs
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49
Q

medical history

A

current and past diseases and surgeries, body weight history, current medications

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50
Q

Anthropometric assessment

A

height, weight, skinfold, thickness, arm muscle circumference, body composition

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51
Q

Biochemical laboratory assessment

A

compounds in blood and urine

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52
Q

clinical assessment

A

physical examination of skin, eyes, and tongue; ability to walk

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53
Q

dietary assessment

A

usual food intake, food allergies, supplements used

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54
Q

environmental assessment

A

education and economic background, marital status, housing condition

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55
Q

many sigs and symptoms of a deficiency…

A

are not very specific, for example:
- diarrhea
- skin conditions
- fatigue

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56
Q

Limitations of nutritional assessment

A
  • may take a long time for the signs and symptoms and the clinical evidence of a nutrition deficiency to develop such as osteoporosis
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57
Q

genetics and nutrtion

A
  • our genes, as well as our lifestyle and diet, affect our health
  • DNA directs how the body uses the nutrients consumed
  • genes dictate how nutrients will be transformed and reassembled into body structures and compounds
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58
Q

Nutritional disease with a genetic link

A

family history is considered one of the most important risk factors in the development of many nutrition-related diseases
- diabetes
- cancer
- osteoporosis
- cardiovascular disease
- hypertension
- obesity

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59
Q

heredity is not density

A

even if you have genetic risk factors, there are many other factors that you can modify

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60
Q

When evaluation nutrition claims, products, and advice be cautious if

A
  • only advantages are discussed
  • new or secret breakthroughs
  • claim to cure a disease
  • sounds to good to be true
  • extreme bias against medical community
  • testimonial show dramatic results
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61
Q

What are the scientific credentials

A
  • registered dietitian (R.D. or R.D.N.)
  • nutritionist is not a legal title - anyone can use it
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62
Q

What is the research behind these claims?

A
  • size of study
  • duration of study
  • type of study
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63
Q

The dietary supplement health and education act of 1994…

A
  • classified vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and herbal remedies as “food” however some herbal supplements contain active drugs, high doses of vitamins can also have drug-like effects and toxicity
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64
Q

Buying nutrition related products

A
  • because of classification as food, regulation is much less strict compared to FDA regulation of drugs
  • generally, sale will only be restricted when there are proven safety issues
  • be skeptical about claims made by supplements
  • be aware that some supplements can affect health just like pharmaceutical drugs
  • they may also interact with pharmaceuticals (increased or decreased efficacy, different duration of action
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65
Q

supplements allowed to claim

A
  • general well-being results
  • how product provides benefit
  • how it will affect structure or function
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66
Q

if claims are made…

A

label must display a disclaimer

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67
Q

tools of a healthy diet

A
  • standards for nutrient intake
  • food labels
  • dietary guidelines
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68
Q

DRIs

A

Dietary reference intakes
- recommendations from the food and nutrition board of the national academy of sciences (a non-government nonprofit)
- NOT what is shown on food labels

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69
Q

5 different standards are part of the DRIs

A
  • estimated average requirements (EARs)
  • recommended dietary allowances (RDAs)
  • adequate intakes (AIs)
  • tolerable upper intake levels (ULs)
  • estimated energy requirements (EERs)
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70
Q

dietary reference intakes

A

differ by life stage:
- age group
- sex (after age 9)
- pregnancy
- lactation
should be applied to dietary intake averaged over several days, not a single day

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71
Q

RDA

A
  • recommended dietary allowances
  • daily nutrient intake amounts that meet the needs of nearly all individuals
  • this amount will prevent acute symptoms of deficiency and also promote long term health
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72
Q

AI

A
  • adequate intakes
    used for nutrients when there is insufficient research to establish average requirements and RDA
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73
Q

ULs

A
  • upper levels
  • a conservative standard: only 2-3% will experience symptoms of toxicity at these amounts
  • applies to chronic daily use
  • not a nutrient goal, but a ceiling for intake
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74
Q

EERs

A
  • estimated energy requirements
  • used for energy-yielding nutrients
  • average daily energy (calories) need for each life-stage group
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75
Q

AMDRs

A

acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges
- not one of 5 DRIs

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76
Q

percent of calories from each macronutrient (AMDR)

A
  • carbohydrate: 45-65%
  • fat: 20-35%
  • protein: 10-35%
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77
Q

appropriate uses of the DRIs

A
  • intended for diet planning
  • should aim to meet any RDAs or AIs set
  • do not exceed the upper level (UL)
  • intended for healthy people: may not meet needs of people with chronic disease
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78
Q

most important dietary standards to know

A
  • recommended dietary allowance (RDA): amount that meets needs for 97-98% of a group
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79
Q

Adequate intake (AI)

A
  • range that is known to be safe and provide adequate nutrition
  • used when there is not enough evidence provide a specific RDA
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80
Q

Upper level (UL)

A
  • highest amount that is safe in most people
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81
Q

Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) and Acceptable macronutrient density ranges (AMDR)

A
  • estimated need for energy (calories) derived from macronutrients (carbs, fat, protein, alcohol)
  • AMDR tells you how many calories to get from each nutrient
  • RDA, AI, UL, and EER all vary based on life stage
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82
Q

nutrient density

A

what present of RDA

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83
Q

empty calories

A

some foods supply energy but very few vitamins or minerals

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84
Q

Putting the DRIs into action to determine the nutrient density of foods

A
  • RDA, UL, AI, and EER are difficult for the average person to interpret
  • would need different food labels from men, women, and children
  • food labels use a different, more generalized system
85
Q

DVs

A

daily values
- generic standards developed by the U.S. food and drug administration
- found on the nutrition facts panel on a food label
- compares the amount of nutrients in the food with a set of standards

86
Q

Daily values (DV)

A
  • Broken down into 4 groups: infants, toddlers, people over the age of 4, pregnant, and lactating women
  • labels generally use the daily values for people over 4, unless t product is specifically marketed to one of the other groups
  • DV for most vitamins and minerals come from the 2016 edition of the RDAs
  • highest RDA from all life groups was used
87
Q

For energy-yielding nutrients, DVs are based on a 2000-calorie diet

A
  • fat: 30%
  • saturated fat: 10%
  • carbohydrate: 60%
  • protein 10%
    of calories
  • fiber is set at 11.5g of fiber per 1000 calories
88
Q

putting the daily values into action on nutrition facts panels

A
  • information related to the daily values is found on almost every food and beverage sold
  • nutrients listed on nutrition facts panels tend to b the one of greatest health concern
  • many people eat too much fat, saturated fat, trans far, cholesterol, sodium, and sugar
  • many people are concerned that they do not get enough fiber, calcium, iron, potassium, and vitamin D
89
Q

Claims on food labels

A
  • marketing tool direct toward health-conscious consumers
  • claims must comply with FDA regulations
  • types of claims: nutrient content, health claims, structure-function
90
Q

nutrient content claims

A

legally defined claims about nutrient content per serving or compared to a reference food

91
Q

health claims

A

describe a relationship between a disease and a nutrient, food, or food constituent
- must have significant scientific agreement that they are true
- must use a “may” or “might” qualifier

92
Q

structure/function claims

A

describe effect of a nutrient on body structure/function without referring to a specific disease

93
Q

Natural

A

a relatively nonspecific and unregulated claim

94
Q

Dietary guidelines for Americans

A
  • the U.S. government’s foundation for nutrition policy and education
  • influences nutritional assistance programs
  • reflect the most accurate and up-to-date scientific knowledge about: nutritious diets, physical activity, related healthy lifestyle choices
  • designed to meet nutrient needs while reducing the risk of: obesity, hypertension, diabetes
  • premise is that nutrient needs should be met primarily by consuming nutrient dense food and beverages (no supplements)
95
Q

2020 dietary guidelines for Americans

A
  1. follow a healthy dietary pattern at every stage
  2. customize and enjoy nutrient dense food and beverage choices to reflect personal preferences, cultural traditions, and budgetary considerations
  3. focus on meeting food group needs with nutrient-dense foods and beverages, ad stay within calorie limits
96
Q

MyPlate

A
  • depicts the key elements of a healthy diet
  • emphasizes the fruit, vegetable, grain, protein, and dairy food groups
  • goal is to remind consumers to think about building a healthy plate at mealtimes
97
Q

food availability and access

A
  • good nutrition status and health requires access to a safe and healthy food supply
  • agriculture produces enough food to provide each person with 2940kcal daily but 1 in 9 people are undernourished, 2 billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies (hidden hunger)
  • huger and malnutrition are most common in the developing world
  • problems of malnutrition (over/undernutrition) and hunger account for over half the world’s disease burden
  • industrialized countries: overnutrition results in overweight and obesity
98
Q

1 in 8 people

A

experience food insecurity

99
Q

sustainability with food

A
  • ability to produce enough food for everyone
  • those diets with low environmental impacts which contribute to food and nutrtion security
100
Q

Key areas of focus for achieving global food sustainability

A
  • promote dietary diversity to optimize nutrient density and lower environmental impact
  • target food production sustainability
  • reduce food loss and food waste
101
Q

organic foods

A
  • widely available but cost more to produce so are more expensive than conventional foods
  • organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products must come from animals allowed to graze outdoors and fed only organic feed
102
Q

organic farming practices

A
  • biological pest management
  • natural fertilizer
  • crop rotation
103
Q

Not permitted in the production of organic food

A
  • synthetic pesticides and fertilizers
  • hormones and antibiotics
  • sewage sludge
  • genetic engineering
  • irradiation
104
Q

Consumers choose organic food is

A
  • reduce their pesticides intake
  • support sustainable agriculture
  • improve the nutritional quality in their diets
105
Q

Genetically modified foods

A
  • genetic modification has been happening for as long as humans have been farming
  • modern genetic engineering using recombinant DNA technology allows for direct changes to the genome
106
Q

GM crops

A
  • genetically engineering crops is used primarily to confer:
  • herbicide tolerance: round up ready crops
  • insect resistance: Bt corn
  • increase nutrient content: golden rice
107
Q

GM animals

A
  • the AquAdvantage salon is now being sold
  • advantages: grows to maturity twice as fast, land-based farming (lower carbon footprint)
  • Concerns: if escape occurred, they might outcompete wild type fish, disruption of commercial fisheries and sustainable fisheries run by indigenous communities
108
Q

Regulation of GM foods

A
  • regulated by the FDA, USDA, and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
  • FDA has evaluated all GM foods on the market and has found them safe to consume
  • new U.S. law mandates labeling
109
Q

Safety and other concerns about GM Foods

A
  • addition of allergens to GM foods that previously did not contain them
  • development of glyphosate-resistant “superweeds”
  • transferring genes across species lines
  • gene flow from GM crops to plants not intended to be modified
  • development pf Bt-resistant insects
  • loss of genetic diversity
  • loss of cultural heritage
  • insufficient regulation
110
Q

Food preservation and processing

A
  • preservation helps to extend a food’s shelf life, permit a wide variety of foods to be available year round
  • original methods drying, salting, sugaring, smoking, fermenting
  • newer methods: pasteurization, refrigeration, food irradiation, food additives
111
Q

food irradiation

A
  • use radiation to extend the shelf life of food and control the growth and insects and pathogens
  • irradiated food does not become radioactive and has minimal nutritional differences
  • irradiated food must be labeled with the Radura
112
Q

food additives

A
  • found mainly in ultra-processed food
  • increase or preserve: nutritional characteristics, freshness, safety, quality and desirability
113
Q

regulation and safety of food additives

A
  • regulated by the FDA
  • requires manufacturers to test and prove safety of new additives
  • some additives are exempt
114
Q

food and water safety

A
  • in addition to having access to abundant, varied, and nutritious foods, we must have safe food and water supplies to support good health
  • North Americans enjoy a relatively safe water and food supply, but pathogens and chemicals in foods and water still pose a health risk
115
Q

foodborne illness overviewe

A
  • annually, foodborne pathogens cause 47.8 million illnesses, though most cases go undiagnosed
116
Q

causes of foodborne illness, how do they reach food

A
  • microbes
  • contamination by feces, contamination by an infected individual, cross-contamination
117
Q

Norovirus

A
  • most common cause of viral gastroenteritis
  • can spread through contaminated food and surfaces, aerosolized particles
  • handwashing is best; alcohol-based sanitizers not very effective
118
Q

preventing foodborne and waterborne illnesses

A

use: good personal and kitchen hygiene, appropriate thawing, cooking, and storage procedures

119
Q

prions

A
  • infectious protein particles
  • bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease)
  • resistant to heat and sterilization
120
Q

toxins in food

A
  • produced by molds, algae, and plants
  • usually not destroyed by cooking
  • ergot, a fungus that grows in improperly stored grain
121
Q

lead

A
  • damages every organ in the body - especially nervous system and kidneys - and impairs the synthesis of hemoglobin
  • very toxic to the developing nervous system of children
  • sources include: home plumbing, lead-based paints, lead-containing containers
122
Q

Mercury

A
  • converted by aquatic bacteria to methylmercury, which can cause: nerve damage, fatigue, poor learning abilities
  • fish are main food source
123
Q

Digestive system

A
  • controlled by hormones an the nervous system
  • has a role in the immune system: acts as a physical barrier, produces immune components
  • houses bacteria: microbiota, also called gut flora
124
Q

GI tract flow

A

Mouth/salivary glands –> esophagus –> stomach –> small intestine –> large intestine –> rectum –> anus

125
Q

Basic structure of the GI tract

A
  • also known as the alimentary canal
  • long, hollow, muscular tube consisting of four layers: (in) mucosa > submucosa > muscularis externa > serosa (out)
  • extends 15 feet from mouth to anus
126
Q

sphincter muscle:

A

ring-link muscles; function as valves that regulate movement of contents through digestive tract

127
Q

GI motility: movement of muscle layer that:

A

breaks apart food, mixes food with digestive enzymes, propels food through digestive tract

128
Q

Digestive enzyme: catalyze hydrolysis reactions:

A

water breaks apart molecules too large to pass through the GI tract wall and yields simple molecules that are small enough to be absorbed

129
Q

places digestive enzymes are produced

A
  • salivary glands
  • stomach
  • pancreas
  • small intestine
130
Q

Digestive enzymes

A
  • salivary glands and stomach produce small amounts of digestive enzymes
  • most are synthesized by pancreas and small intestine
  • disease in one of these organs can result in incomplete digestion
131
Q

saliva

A

contributes to starch digestion, lubrication, swallowing

132
Q

mucus

A

protects GI tract cells, lubricates digesting food

133
Q

enzyme (amylases, lipases, proteases)

A

break down carbohydrates, fats, and protein into forms small enough for absorption

134
Q

Acid

A

promotes digestion of protein, destroys microorganisms, increases solubility of minerals

135
Q

Bile

A

aids in fat digestion (emulsifies fat)

136
Q

bicarbonate

A

neutralizes stomach acid when it reaches small intestine

137
Q

hormones

A

regulate digestion and absorption

138
Q

Moving through the GI tract: mouth and esophagus

A
  • food preparation can make food easier to digest
  • in the mouth: teeth tear and grind food into smaller pieces
  • saliva is mixed with food particles to create bolus
139
Q

Functions of saliva

A
  • saliva contains: mucus to help lubricate and hold bolus together, lysozyme to kill bacteria, amylase to break down starch
  • water in saliva dissolves chemicals in food, contributing to taste
140
Q

swallowing

A
  • moves food from mouth to esophagus
  • the epiglottis is found at the entrance of the esophagus - prevents foo from entering the trachea
  • when food is swallowed, the epiglottis closes over the larynx, and then the esophagus relaxes and opens
141
Q

Moving through the GI tract: stomach

A
  • food enters through lower esophageal sphincter
  • large capacity to expand
  • stomach is a holding and mixing tank: little digestion occurs here, water and small amounts of fat and alcohol can be absorbed
  • stomach secretes gastric juice when we see, smell, taste, or think about food
142
Q

Cells that contribute to gastric juice

A
  • parietal cells: secrete intrinsic factor and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
  • chief cells: secrete pepsinogen, precursor form of pepsin and gastric lipase
  • G cells: produce gastrin
143
Q

HCl

A

kills bacteria, denatures proteins, activates pepsinogen

144
Q

intrinsic factor

A

needed for B12 absorption

145
Q

pepsinogen

A

after activation to pepsin, digests proteins

146
Q

gastric lipase

A

plays a small role in fat digestion

147
Q

mucus

A

lubricates digestive tract and protects from acid and enzymes

148
Q

gastrin

A

hormone that stimulates digestive processes such as secretion and motility

149
Q

Moving through GI tract stomach continued

A
  • contraction of the muscle layers in the stomach mixes food with gastric secretions forming chyme
  • pyloric sphincter regulates release of chyme into the small intestine and prevents backflow of bile into stomach
150
Q

Moving through the GI tract: small intestine and accessory organs

A
  • the small intestine is the major site of digestion and absorption
  • divided into duodenum, jejunum, ileum
  • interior of small intestine has circular folds and fingerlike projections: villi and microvilli
151
Q

Small intestine and accessory organs

A
  • circular folds cause chyme to move slowly through a spiral path, which helps mix the chyme with digestive juices and bring nutrients into contact with villi
  • villi are lined with epithelial cells called enterocytes
  • these cells have microvilli that form the brush border
152
Q

brush border enzymes

A

aid in digestion

153
Q

Liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

A
  • accessory organs that enhance digestion and absorption in the small intestine
  • secretion are delivered to the small intestine through: the common bile duct and pancreatic duct
  • ducts come together at the hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi( and empty into the duodenum
154
Q

Liver produces bile:

A
  • contains cholesterol
  • emulsifies fats
155
Q

gallbladder

A

stores and concentrates bile

156
Q

bile

A

is reabsorbed in the ileum and returned to the liver in a process called enterohepatic circulation

157
Q

sodium bicarbonate

A

buffering of acid chyme entering duodenum for activation of enzymes

158
Q

pancreatic amylase

A

helps break down starches into sugar

159
Q

pancreatic lipase

A

involved in degrading dietary triglycerides

160
Q

proteases

A

break down proteins

161
Q

gastrointestinal hormones: a key to orchestrating digestion

A

the work of the digestive system requires regulation and coordination of several processes

162
Q

5 hormones play roles in the regulation

A
  • gastrin
  • secretin
  • cholecystokinin
  • somatostatin
  • glucose-dependent insulintropic peptide
163
Q

pyloric sphincter

A

regulates release of chyme into the small intestine and prevents backflow of bile into stomach

164
Q

cephalic phase

A

the first stage of digestion, which begins before eating and prepares the gastrointestinal tract for food, the stomach responds to the mere sight, smell, taste, or thought of food

165
Q

gastric phase

A

neural response, food is entering the stomach an semi digested proteins activate gastric activity

166
Q

intestinal phase

A

chyme enters the small intestine from the stomach and the duodenum adjusts gastric activity through hormone and nervous reflexes

167
Q
A
168
Q

CCK + GIP

A

secreted in the presence of lipids and carbohydrates

169
Q

secretin

A

decreased pH

170
Q

GIP

A

is a hormone that stimulates insulin secretion

171
Q

gastrin

A
  • is secreted by G cells in duodenum and stomach
  • promotes increased stomach motility, acid and enzyme production
  • secreted when you think about or smell good
172
Q

Cholecytoskinin

A
  • is secreted in duodenum when chyme contains lipids and partially digested proteins
  • accelerates pancreatic production and secretion of digestive enzymes
  • relaxes hepatopancreatic sphincter and gallbladder ejecting bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum
173
Q

Endocytosis

A

phagocytosis and pinocytosis

174
Q

stomach absorbs

A

alcohol and water (small amount)

175
Q

small intestine absorbs

A

calcium, magnesium, iron, other minerals, glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins, water (70-90%), alcohol, bile acids

176
Q

Large intestine

A

sodium, potassium, some fatty acids, vitamin K and biotin, gases, water

177
Q

Moving nutrients around the body: circulatory systems

A
  • nutrients absorbed in the small intestine go into either: blood capillaries and the hepatic portal system and lymphatic capillaries
178
Q

Blood capillaries and the hepatic portal system

A
  • water-soluble substances
  • first pass effect in liver
179
Q

lymphatic capillaries

A
  • fats and fat-soluble vitamins
  • released into venous circulation via thoracic duct
180
Q

moving through the GI tract: large intestine

A
  • small intestine empties into the large intestine through the ileocecal valve
  • the large is referring to diameter
  • 3 parts: colon, rectum, anus
181
Q

colon

A

cecum and ascending, transverse, descending, and the sigmoid colons

182
Q

large intestine 3 main functions

A
  • house microbiota
  • absorbs water and electrolytes: sodium and potassium
  • forms and expels feces
183
Q

Gut microbiota

A
  • bacteria that live in the GI tract, mainly in the large intestine: ileocecal valve prevents bacteria in the large intestine from migrating into the small intestine
  • colon contains up to 1000 species, but 30-40 species make up the majority
  • many of the gut microbiota are beneficial: harmful strains can live there but growth is held in check by other bacteria an immune system
184
Q

Dysbiosis

A

altered balance or change number of gut flora caused by antibiotic treatment, radiation therapy, surgery, and some diseases

185
Q

Beneficial functions of micrbiota

A
  • synthesize vitamin K and biotin
  • aid lactose digestion
  • ferment some fibers and starches to create short-chain fatty acids that can be absorbed and used as an energy source in the colon
  • gas production can be a byproduct of these processes
186
Q

probiotics and prebiotics

A
  • consuming probiotics and prebiotics may affect the gut microbiota
  • preliminary evidence has suggested benefits in treatment of: diarrhea, constipation, post-antibiotic diarrhea, GI diseases, allergies
  • but other studies have shown no benefit
  • there may also be risks related to over-colonization by probiotics
187
Q

Probiotics

A
  • bacterial stains that have beneficial properties to the host
  • supplements usually contain one or a few species
  • regulated as dietary supplements
188
Q

Prebiotics

A
  • non-digestible food ingredients
  • promote the growth of beneficial bacteria
  • inulin: chicory, wheat, onions, garlic, asparagus, bananas
189
Q

Absorption of water and electrolytes

A
  • 10 liters of water processes per day by digestive system (7 from secretions, 3 from drinking)
  • small intestine absorbs 90%
  • large intestine absorbs the remaining amount except about 1% that is excreted
190
Q

Elimination of feces

A
  • feces in rectum triggers muscle contractions in sigmoid colon and rectum, as well as relaxation of anal sphincter muscles
191
Q

Composition of feces:

A
  • 75% water
  • 5% bacteria
  • remainder is indigestible material and dead epithelial cells
  • color due to compounds produced by bacteria
192
Q

mouth and salivary glands

A

prepare food for swallowing: chewing, moistening with saliva, detect taste molecules, start digestion of starch with amylase enzyme

193
Q

esophagus

A

moves food to stomach by peristaltic waves initiated by swallowing

194
Q

stomach

A

secretes gastric juice containing acid and enzymes, mixes food with gastric juice, converting it to liquid chyme, starts digestion of protein with pepsin enzyme, kills microorganisms with acid’, secretes intrinsic factor, a protein required for vitamin B-12 absorption, slowly releases chyme to the small intestine

195
Q

liver

A

produces bile to aid fat digestion and absorption

196
Q

gallbladder

A

stores and concentrates bile and releases it to the small intestine

197
Q

pancreas

A

secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate into the small intestine

198
Q

small intestine

A

mixes chyme with bile and pancreatic juice to complete digestion, absorbs nutrients and other compounds in foods, transports remaining residue to large intestine

199
Q

large intestine (colon)

A

absorbs water and electrolyte (sodium and potassium), forms and stores feces, house most of the gut microbiota

200
Q

rectum

A

holds and expels feces via the anus

201
Q

GI pathophysiology

A

diarrhea
- three or more loose bowel movements per day
- secretory: increased secretion or decreased absorption of water
- inflammatory: damage to and decreased function of mucosa
- leading cause of death worldwide, especially for infants

202
Q

Heartburn and gastroesophageal reflux disease

A
  • heartburn occurs when stomach acid backflows into the esophagus
  • gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), heartburn 2 or more times per week, also can experience hoarseness, trouble swallowing, coughing, gagging, and nausea
  • serious complications of GERD include weight loss, ulceration, bleeding, anemia, and risk of adenocarcinoma of esophagus
203
Q

GERD

A
  • treated with lifestyle modification and medications
  • eating small meals, avoid trigger foods, do not lay down after eating, weight loss, stop smoking, limit alcohol intake
204
Q

peptic ulcers

A
  • small erosions of the top layer of cells in the stomach or duodenum
  • causes: infection with Helicobacter pylori, heavy uses of NSAIDs
  • symptoms include: gnawing/burning pain, nausea/vomiting, loss of appetite, weight loss
  • complications: bleeding, perforations
  • treatments: antibiotics for those infected with H. pylori proton pump inhibitor to suppress acid production
205
Q

Gallstons

A
  • develop with cholesterol and bile pigments form crystal-like particles
  • to prevent formation: maintain a healthy weight, avoid rapid weight loss, eat a healthy diet, exercise
206
Q

food intolerances

A
  • different from a food allergy
  • lactose intolerance many adults do not make enough lactase to break down lactose
  • intolerance can also occur due to a non-immune reaction to a food chemical
207
Q

intestinal gas

A
  • flatulence is a mixture of gases, fermentation of undigested carbohydrates in large intestine, performed by bacteria
  • 1-4 pints per day is considered normal
  • large quantities of gas can cause bloating and pain
  • enzymes preparations can help prevent formation (taking lactase)
208
Q

inflammatory bowel disease

A
  • ulcerative colitis: inflammation and ulceration of the mucose in the large intestine
  • Crohn’s disease: inflammation and ulceration in al layers and in any part of the GI tract
  • symptoms: rectal bleeding, diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, fever

Nutritional Aspects of Health (4 decks)

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