Exam 1 (Nervous, Endocrine, Homeostasis, Infection and Technology) Flashcards
Types of hormones with examples
Steroid - estrogen, testosterone etc
Protein - insulin, glucagon, ADH etc
Amine - epinephrine etc
Describe different types of hormones
Steroid
* Lipid Soluble
* bind to transport proteins, enabling them to travel in the bloodstream
* slow to take effect, long lasting
Protein and Amine
* water soluble
* unable to diffuse across cell membrane
* quick to act, shorter lasting
Endocrine vs Exocrine
Endocrine - secretes into the extracellular fluid that surround the cels that make up the gland
Exocrine - secretes into a duct that carries the secretion to the body surface or to a cavity
Relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary gland
- Hypothalamus controls the secretions of hormones through the pituitary
- hypothalamus secretes releasing or inhibiting factors through blood vessels to the anterior lobe
- Hypothalamus produces some hormones which are passed along the nerve fibres to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
- Hypothalamus joins the pituitary by the INFUNDIBULUM
Anterior vs Posterior
Anterior
* controlled by the releasing and inhibiting factors
* has no nerves connecting it to the hypothalamus, rather connected by a large network of blood vessels in the infundibulum
* FSH, TSH, LH, GH, PRL, ACTH
Posterior
* connected to the hypothalamus by nerve fibres that pass through the infundibulum
* does secrete hormones also stores and produces hormones
* ocytocin, ADH
What glands secrete hormones and their target cells and effects (Posterior, Anterior, Pineal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus, Adrenal cortex, Adrenal medulla, pancreas, testes, ovaries)
refer to table on onenote
Stucture of a neuron
- Cell Body - contains nucleus - responsible for controlling the functioning of the cell
- Dendrites - Short extensions - carry impulses into cell body
- Axon - carries nerve impulses away from the cell body
- Myelin sheath - insulates, protects and speeds up the movement of impulses along the axon
- Schwann Cell - forms the myelin sheath only within the PNS
- Node of Ranvier - facilitates the rapid transmission of nerve impulses
- Neurilemma - outermost coil of Schwann cells
Neurons classified by function
- Sensory - carry messages from receptors in the sense organs, or in the skin, to the central nervous system
- Motor - carry messages from the CNS to effectors
- Interneurons - link between the sensory and motor neuron
Neurons by structure
See OneNote
Define nerve impluse
- the message that travels along a nerve fibre
- transmission of a nerve implulse triggers an action potential in the adjacent membrane
- Impulse conducts along unmyelinated fibres through salatory conduction (jumping conduction - jumps from one NOR to another)
transmission of a nerve impulse
- Polarisation
○ At a resting, potential the membrane is polarised
○ inside of the cell and has a net negative charge and the outside of the cell has a net positive charge.
○ A Na/K pump allows these ions to move across the membrane: sodium into the cell and potassium out - Depolarization
○ the sudden increase in membrane potential
○ This occurs if the level of stimulation exceeds 15mV
○ Once they are open, more sodium ions move into the cell. this makes the intracellular fluid less negative, increasing the potential difference
○ If the stimulus is strong enough to increase the potential to -55mV then voltage-gated sodium channels open
○ This produces a movement of sodium ions into the cells
○ The size of the response is not related to the strength of the stimulus, this is also known as the all or none response3) Repolarization
○ The sodium channels close, which stops the influx of sodium ions
○ At the same time, voltage-gated potassium channels open, increasing the flow of potassium ions out of the cell
○ This makes the inside of the membrane more negative than the outside and decreases the membrane potential
○ The membrane is repolarized
○ The potassium channels remain open longer than what is needed, this results in the membrane potential dropping lower than the resting membrane potential, and the membrane is hyperpolarized
○ This process is called hyperpolarization
4) Refractory Period
○ Once the sodium channels have opened they quickly become inactivated
○ Thus being unresponsive to stimulus
○ Therefore, for a brief period after being stimulated, the membrane will not undergo another action potential
Transmission across a synapse
- Nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal, it activates voltage gated calcium ion channels
- As there is a higher concentration of calcium ions in the extracellular fluid, they flow into the cell at the pre-synaptic axon terminal
- This causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane, releasing special chemicals called neurotransmitters by exocytosis
- The neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and attach to receptors on the membrane of the next neuron
- This stimulates ligand-gated protein channels to open, which allows the influx of sodium ions an initiates an action potential
Central Nervous System Protection
- Bone - cranium and vertebral canal
- Meninges - duramater, arachnoidmater and pia mater
- CSF - clear watery fluid
Describe the layers of the meninges
○ Dura mater - outermost layer, tough and fibrous, texture and thickness similar to rubber glove
○ Arachnoid mater - loose mesh of fibres - resembles web
Pia mater - inner layer, delicate - contains many blood vessels and sticks closely to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
What are the three main functions of the CSF
- Protection - acts as a shock absorber
2. Support - brain floats inside it
3. Transport - CSF is formed from the blood, and circulates around and through the CNS before eventually re-entering the blood capillaries. During its circulation it takes nutrients to cells of the brain and spinal cord
Describe the different parts of the brain
Cerebrum - responsible for thinking, reasoning, learning, memory and sense of responsibility. Has a large surface area due to its folded structure.
Medulla oblongata - joins the brain to the spinal chord
Cerebellum - part of the brain behind and below the cerebrum; concerned with coordination of movement
Corpus callosum - bundle of nerve fibres that links the two cerebral hemispheres
Divisions of the PNS
- Afferent
- Efferent ->1. Somatic 2. Autonomic -> Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
Effect of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic on the heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, iris of the eye, sweat glands, salivary glands, adrenal medulla.
see onenote
Postive VS Negative Feedback
Positive feedback response adds to the stimulus increasing the response. Examples include childbirth and blood clotting
Whereas, Negative feedback response eliminates or reduces the stimulus . Examples include increase in body temperature etc
Define Homeostasis
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of relatively constant internal environment independent of the changing external environment.
Describe a feedback system
Stimulus - Change in environment
Receptor - Detects change in environment and sends this message to modulator
Modulator - Receive message and initiates response
Effector - Carries out response
Response - what is caused by the effector
Feedback - Environment back to normal
What are the organs involved in the regulation of BS
Liver - stores glucose
Pancreas - A cells and B cells secrete hormones
Adrenal Glands - Secretion of Cortisol
Increase in blood glucose
S - Increase in blood glucose
R - Carotid Chemoreceptors detect increase in BG
M - Hypothalamus receives and initiates response through the effectors
E - Pancrease secretes Insulin through Beta Cells
- Liver converts glucose into glycogen for storage through glycogenesis
R - Insulin promotes glycogenesis in the liver
- liver keeps glucose out of the blood for storage
F - Decrease in blood glucose
Decrease in BG
S - Decrease in BG
R - Carotid chemoreceptors in heart detect increase in BG
M - Hypothalamus receives message and activates the liver, pancreas, and adrenal glands
E
- Pancreas secretes Glucagon from Alpha Cells
- Liver converts glycogen into glucose through glycogenolysis
- adrenal glands secrete cortisol
R
- Glucagon initiates glycogenolysis
- Liver releases glucose into the blood
- Cortisol regulates carbohydrate metabolism by ensuring enough energy is provided
F - Increase in BG
Genesis, Neo and lysis meanings
Genesis - Creation
Neo - New
Lysis - Breakdown
Organs involved in thermoregulation
Skin - Vaso, sweating, radiation, evaporation
Muscles - movement
Adrenal medulla - secretion of hormones
Increase in body temperature
S - Increase in BT
R - Peripheral thermoreceptors in skin
M - Hypothalamus
E
- Skin sweats
- Vasodilation of skin arterioles
- Decrease in metabolic rate
- Behavioural Response
R
- Vasodilation causes increase in blood flow through the skin due to the higher SA - causing heat loss through convection
- Sweating causes evaporation
- decreased metabolic rate causes a decrease in heat production
F - Decrease in BT
Decrease in BT
S - Decrease in BT
R - Peripheral thermoreceptors in skin
M - Hypothalamus
E
- Skeletal muslces shiver
- vasoconstriction
- adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline & noradrenaline
- pituitary releases TSH - releases thyroxine
- Behavioural Response
R
- Shivering produces heat by movement
- vasoconstriction causes a reduction in heat loss
- adrenaline and noradrenaline increase metabolic rate causing greater heat production
- thyroxine also increases metabolic rate
F - Increase in BT
Hot, Perfect, Cold
Greater than 42 = heat stroke
Greater than 45 = death
Perfect = 36.8C
Lower than 33 = hypothermia
Lower than 31 = Death
Define heat stroke and hypothermia
Heatstroke - the failure of a person’s temperature regulating mechanisms when exposed to excessive heat
Hypothermia - temperature drops below the level required to maintain normal body functions
Neurons by structure and function
Function:
1. Sensory - takes messages from sensory organs to CNS
2. Motor - takes messages from CNS to effectors
3. Interneurons - Connects sensory and motor neurons
Structure:
1. Unipolar -
2. Multipolar -
3. Pseudounipolar -
4. Bipolar -
Water contents of the body
2/3 In the intracellular fluid
1/3 in the extracellular fluid
1/4 of extracellular fluid is PLASMA
3/4 of extracellular fluid is interstitial fluid
Organs involved in bodily fluids
Kidney - Main site of reabsorption and excretion
Adrenal gland - secretes key hormones
Posterior lobe of pituitary - secretes hormones
Increase in water concentration
S - Increase in water concentration
R - Osmoreceptors in thirst centre of hypothalamus detect decrease in osmotic concentration and increase in plasma volume
M - Thirst centre
E
- Kidney begins with excretion
- Adrenal gland secretes aldosterone
R
- Kidney excretes larger volumes of water at a faster rate
- aldosterone maintains sodium levels of the body
F - Decrease in water concentration
Decrease in water concentration
S - decrease in water concentration
R - osmoreceptors detect decrease in plasma volume and increase in osmotic concentration
M - Thirst centre
E
- Posterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes ADH
- thirst centre initiates thirst response
R
- ADH increase permeability of the DCT and collecting ducts of the nephron, meaning more water is reabsorbed into the blood stream
- Thirst response causes the person to drink water
F - increase in water concentration
Define osmotic concentration and pressure
Osmotic concentration - the concentration of solutes - how much water is in a cell
Osmotic pressure - the tendency of a solution to take in a solvent - trying to keep all the tea in a teabag
Too much or TOO little water
Too little = Dehydration
Dehydration causes;
- severe thirst
- low BP
- dizziness
- headache
Too Much = Water intoxication
Water intoxication causes;
- lightheadedness
- vomiting
- collapse
- headache
- excessive urination
Organs involved in gas concentrations
Diaphragm, intercostal muscles, lungs