Exam 1- Lectures 1-4 Flashcards
Speed
- Distance traveled by an object in a given unit of time
- -Velocity- specifies direction of movement
Acceleration
- Velocity changes as a fxn of time
- Directly proportional to the force applied
- Inversely proportional to the object’s mass
Elasticity
-The degree to which a material returns to its original shape after it has been deformed by an external force
Pressure
- Force acting perpendicularly on a specific surface area
- Measured in pascal (Pa)
- Patmos= 101.325 kPa
- Pressure in diff locations can be higher or lower than Patmos
- —Increase in air molecules= increase in P
- —Decrease in air molecules= decrease in P
- Volume= inversely proportional to pressure
Acoustics
- Study of sound
- –Propagation of a pressure wave in space and time
- Pressure waves move from states of high to low pressure
- Audible disturbance in a medium such as air, water, metal
- —Medium contains molecules that share characteristics of elasticity and mass
Air Molecules
- Conducting medium of interest for speech
- Number of molecules in a cubic inch of air= density of air (p)
- Average number of air molecules per cubic meter of air= 3x10^23
Force
-Influence that causes an object to undergo a change in speech, a change in direction, or a change in shape
Displacement
- Movement away from resting position
- The generation of a recoiling force
Restoring (Recoil) force
- An opposition to an increase in displacement
- Variable force that gives rise to an equilibrium in a physical state; tends to bring system back toward equilibrium
Inertia
- Resistance to change in its state of motion or rest
- Tendency of objects to move in a straight line at constant velocity
Sound Waves in Air
- All particles go through the same back and forth motion, but the movement of each particle lags slightly behind the movement of the proceeding particle
- The disturbance itself moves along the line of particles
- Air particles move back and forth around their fixed resting position
Sound Wave Definition
-Movement (propagation) of a disturbance through a material medium such as air, w/o permanent displacement of the particles themselves
Simple Harmonic Motion
- A periodic motion where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement
- –Restoring force pulls towards resting position; overshoot occurs due to inertia
- Pure tones= SHM
Inertia and Restoring Force within a Cycle
- RF is strong when inertia is weak (when swing is displaced)
- Inertia is strong when RF is weak (around rest position)
- Interplay btwn the two leads to vibration that persists
Pure Tone
- Pattern of vibration= periodic
- Graphic represents a sine wave
- Ex: Tuning forks and pendulums, swings
Periodic
- Each cycle takes the same amount of time
- Frequency and period are constant
Compression
-Area of positive pressure from when molecules approach and collide
Rarefaction
- Area of lower pressure
- Decreased density of air
Propagation
-Changes in pressure continue in a wavelike motion that travels from source of a sound
How does the tympanic membrane vibrate?
-Through changes in air pressure arriving at the ear
Period
- T
- The time it takes to complete one cycle of motion of the molecule throughout the vibratory cycle
Frequency
- Number of cycles per second
- Hz
- Inverse of period; f= 1/T
- –As frequency increases, period decreases
- Pitch= subjective quality related to frequency
Wavelengths
- Measurement of spatial variation of a pressure wave
- Distance covered by one complete cycle
- Inverse relationship to frequency
Damping (Energy Loss)
- As a sound wave travels across a medium, its energy is spread over a larger and larger area, its sound intensity gradually decreases
- Each time molecule moves back and forth, it does so w/ diff amplification
- Ex: friction, absorption
Friction
-Air molecules rub against each other and against walls; generates heat and loss of energy
Absorption
- Air molecules are absorbed into the surroundings
- Low frequencies travel better through barriers (walls)
Complex sounds
- 2+ Frequencies
- Occur when waves of diff frequencies combine/interfere w/ each other
- If all periodic added together= complex periodic sound
- Interference results in a more complex vibration of air molecules
- Vowel production= complex, periodic sound
Fundamental Frequency
- Determined by the rate of repetition of the waveform pattern
- Can be identical for multiple waveforms yet look different
How waveforms have unique appearances
-Changes in frequency or amplitude
Waveform vs Spectrum
- Waveform- displays an acoustic event in a time domain
- –Amp and f across time
- Spectrum- Displays an acoustic event in the frequency domain
- —Individual frequencies and amplitude at at given time
Harmonics
- Overtone frequency
- Multiple components of the fundamental frequency
Resonance
- Phenomenon whereby an object vibrates with maximum energy at a particular frequency
- Natural frequency
- –The frequency at which an object vibrates freely
- –Determined by length, density, tension, stiffness
- –W/o interference, objects always vibrate at NF
Resonant Frequencies
- Everything that vibrates has a resonant frequency
- –Frequency at which something vibrates
- –Independent of amplitude
- Shorter/smaller objects tend to vibrate at higher f
- Longer/larger objects tend to vibrate at lower frequencies
Acoustic Resonators
- Something that contains air (ex; vocal tract)
- –Frequency dependent on size of cavity
- –Shape is not important when determining frequency
Mass Spring System
-Air is compressed and rarefied because air within the container acts as the spring that oscillates back and forth
Tube Resonance
- Amplify frequencies that are closest to the objects natural resonant frequency
- Object’s NF determined by shape and material
Bandwidth
- Range of frequencies that a resonator will respond to
- Symmetrical tube= narrow bandwidth
- Irregular tube= wide bandwith
Vocal Tract as a Resonator
- Tube that is closed at one end and open at another
- Series of air-filled containers that are connected to each other
- Broadly tuned resonator= transmits a wide range of frequencies around each RF
- Variable resonator
Sound filter theory
-Glottal sound–> Sound source–> Vocal tract filter–> Speech sounds
3 Subsystems of Speech Production
- Respiratory
- Laryngeal/Phonatory
- Articulatory/Resonance
Torso
Thorax + Abdomen
Thorax
- Vertebral column
- Rib cage
- Pectoral Girdle
- Pelvic girdle
- Trachea
- Sternum
Vertebrae
- 34 vertebra form the backbone of the torso
- Stacked on each other w/ intervertebral disc in btwn
- Cross section= body, vertebral foramen, spinous process
- 7 cervical
- 12 thoracic
- 5 lumbar
- 5 sacral
- 5 coccygeal
Rib Cage
- 12 pairs of ribs
- Middle ribs are larger than upper and lower ribs
- Parts- Shaft, head and neck
- Costal groove- blood vessels and nerves run
- Costal angle- curvature of rib as it bends in two directions (“twisted”)
Vertebra articulating with the ribs
- Posterior articulations btwn:
1. Head of ribs and body of thoracic vertebrae
2. Neck of ribs and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae - Form 2 synovial joints
Sternum
- Front support for the rib cage
- R1-10 articulate w/ sternum, R11&12 floating
- 3 parts:
1. Manubrium (R1)
2. Corpus (R2-R6)
3. Xiphoid process
Joints of the Ribs and Sternum
- Ribs join the sternum by cartilage
1. Synchondrosis- R1 and manubrium; ossifies with age
2. Synovial - -R2-R10
- -Allow a variety of movements (upward, downward, inward)
- -Movements occur simultaneously with the lateral movement of the rib cage and vertebral column
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
- Clavicle- articulates with manubrium of sternum on both sides
- Scapula- Suspended in place by their articulations with clavicle
Pelvic Girdle
-Base, lower back, and sides of skeletal torso
Pulmonary Apparatus
- Trachea
- Bronchial Tree
- Alveolar ducts
- Lungs
Trachea
- Singular tube composed of 16-20 horseshoe-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
- Rings are incomplete posteriorly and filled with fibrous tissue and smooth muscle fibers
- Rings extend C6-T5
- Articulates superiorly with cricoid cartilage (base of larynx)
- Bifurcates to form mainstream (primary) bronchi
Bronchial Tree
- Tubes running to the 5 lobes of the lungs (2L, 3R)
- Segmental Bronchi
- Subsegmental bronchi
- Small bronchi
- Terminal bronchi
- Bronchioles
- Alveolar ducts, sacs, and alveoli
Alveolar Ducts
- Air-filled structure
- Million of alveoli in bunches
- Surrounded by capillaries
- Exchange gases
Lungs
- Pair of cone-shaped structures
- Porous and spongy
- Consists of elastic fibers
- Visceral pleura- Inner layer
- Parietal Pleura- Outer layer
Thoracic Cavity
- Pulmonary apparatus housed in chest wall
- Rib cage
- Sternum
- Pectoral girdle
- Vertebral column
- Diaphragm
Intercostal Muscles
- 11 pairs of external and internal
- Oriented obliquely and cross each other
- Externals= superficial; not found at sternum end of ribs
- Internal= deep; not found at vertebrae end of ribs
External Intercostals
- Stronger than internal
- Expand rib cage; elevates
- Origin is the rib above them; insertion= rib below
- Contraction causes inserted rib to elevate
Internal Intercostals
- Originates from rib below, inserts to rib above
- Assists in lowering the ribs along lateral and posterior walls; play a large role in forced expiration
- Assist in adding rigidity during respiration
Diaphragm
- When diaphragm contracts, it lowers–> raises ribcage for inhalation
- Single muscle that separates the thorax from the abdomen
- One of the largest muscles in the body
- Bi-domed in shape
- Muscle fibers insert into the central tendon
- 3 pts of origin
- –Sternal portion attaches to the posterior surface of xiphoid process
- –Costal portion anchors to lowermost 6 ribs
- –Lumber portion attaches L1-L3
- Parietal pleura= connections to the lungs
Sternocleidomastoid
- Front and side of neck
- -Originates from top/front of sternum and sternal end of clavicle
- Course superiorly and posteriorly to terminate at mastoid process of temporal bone
- Elevates sternum and clavicle
Muscles associated with the ventral thorax
- Pectoralis major
- Pectoralis minor
- Subclavis
- Serratus anterior
Pectoralis major
- Fan-shaped
- Attached to clavicle, sternum, humerus
- Elevates sternum and anterior part of ribs
Pectoralis Minor
- Deep to pectoralis major
- Runs from anterior aspect of R2-R5 to the scapula
- Elevates R2-R5
Subclavis
- Course below and parallel to clavicle
- Runs from rib to clavicle
- Elevates 1st rib
Serratus Anterior
- Sawtooth shaped
- Runs from ribs to scapula and outer surfaces of ribs
- Elevates R1-R8
Dorsal muscles of the thoracic cavity
- Lateral iliocostalis cervicis
- Lateral iliocostalis thoracis
- Latissimus dorsi
Lateral Iliocostalis Cervicis
- Originates on R3-R6 and inserts into C4-C6
- Elevates ribs
Lateral Iliocostalis Thoracis
- Originates R7-R12
- Inserts into lower edges of R1-R6
- Elevate ribs
Latissimus Dorsi
- Wider medially than laterally
- Originates at the lower thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae and inserts into upper humerus
- Elevates R9-R12
Serratus Posterior Inferior
-Depresses ribs 9-12
Serratus Posterior Superior
- Originates from C7-T3
- Inserts lateral to the angle of R2-R5
- Elevates R2-5
Muscles of the Abdominal wall
- External oblique
- Internal oblique
- Rectus Abdominus
- Transverse Abdominus
External Oblique
- Longest and strongest muscle
- Originates on posterior surfaces of the lower 8 ribs and inserts at the anterior aspect of the pelvic bone
- Fibers run in the diagonal direction
- Pulls the lower ribs downward and compresses abdomen
Internal Oblique
- Runs deep to the external oblique
- Course in a diagonal direction opposite the external oblique
- Ordinates from the anterior 2/3 of the Iliac crest and inserts into R10-R12
- Pulls downward on the lower ribs and compresses abdomen walls
Rectus Abdominus
- Fibers course vertically from the lower abdomen to the xiphoid process and from R5-R7
- Compresses the anterior abdominal wall
- Allows body to bend
- Depress ribs–> Exhalation
Transverse Abdominus
- Runs horizontally from the inner surfaces of R6-R12, the diaphragm and transverse thoracic to the pelvic bone
- Depress ribs–> Exhalation
- Allows body to bend
Secondary Muscles of Expiration
- Muscles of the rib cage wall that serve to depress the ribs
- –Serratus posterior inferior
- –Subcostals
- –Transversus Thoracis
Cranial Nerves
- Part of the PNS
- Glossopharyngeal (9)
- Vagus (10)
- Hypoglossal (12)
- Accessory (11)
- –Unique origin from SC
- –Innervates sternocleidomastoid (elevation of sternum, clavicle, ribcage)
- Dilates larynx and upper airways for breathing
Spinal nerves
- 22
- Contribute to control of breathing
- Cervical, thoracic, lumbar nerves
Output Variables in Respiration
- Volume
- Pressure
- Inverse relationship
Lung Volume and Lung Capacity
- LV= Space inside lungs
- LC= How much oxygen the lungs can take in and out
Alveolar Pressure
- Force distributed within the lungs at any given time
- Collision of air molecules in the lungs
- –Increase in P= increase in air molecules
- –Decrease in P= decrease in air molecules
Volume Changes–> Movements in Rib Cage
-Rib cage wall moves vertically
1. In the front (upward/forward or downward/backward) along neck/transverse process
2. Along the side where the rib moves along both axis in an upward/outward or downward/inward
*Joints that make this possible=
Costosternal joint, costovertebral joint
Movements of the Diaphragm
- Contraction leads to lowering/flattening due to:
- –Central tendon moving downward/forward
- –Elevate the lower ribs
Lung Volumes
- Amount of air in the lungs at any given time
- How much air is used for various purposes
- Tidal volume, Inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume
Tidal Volume (TV)
- Volume of air inhaled and exhaled during a cycle of respiration
- Varies; depends on age, build, degree of physical activity
- –Adult male- 600-750 ml; 2030 during physical activity
- –Females= 450 at rest
- –Children= 200-400 at rest
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
- Amount of air that can be inhaled about tidal volume
- Adult range= 1500-2500ml
- Used for speaking to obtain more air if needed
Expiratory Reserve Volume
- Amount of air that can be exhaled below TV
- Possible to continue exhaling
- Utilize abdominal muscles
- Adults= 1000-2000ml
Residual Volume
- Lung tissue is always slightly stretched bcuz pleural linkage
- Always some air pressure in lungs
- 1000-1500ml in adults
- Can never be expired
Dead Air
-Air inhaled but not involved in gas exhange
Vital Capacity (VC)
- Combination of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume
- Maximum amount of air that a person can exhale after having inhaled as deeply as possible
- VC= TV+ IRV+ ERV
- Restful breathing= uses only 10% of VC
- Conversational speech= 20-35% of VC
- Loud speech= 40-45% of VC
Pleural Linkage
- Linkage of lungs and thorax–> move as unit
- Visceral pleura= covers lungs
- Parietal pleura= inner surface of the thorax
- Continuous membrane folded back on itself
- Pleural space- space btwn membrances; contains fluid that has neg pressure
- Slightly expanded, lowering the intrapleural pressure
- Provide a smooth, friction-free surface for lungs and thorax to move against each other
Inhalation in Quiet Breathing
- Infants= 40-70 BPM
- 5yo- 25 BPM
- 15 yo- 20 BPM
- Adults- 12-18 BPM
Muscles used for Inhalation in Restful Breathing
Primary: -Diaphragm -External intercostals Accessory: -Ventral thorax (pec minor and major) -Dorsal thorax (latissimus dorsi) -Sternocleidomastoid *Exhalation uses passive recoil
Pressure and Structural Differences in Tidal/Restful Breathing (Inhalation)
- Alveolar pressure becomes neg so air will be forced into lungs
- –Contract diaphragm; Increasing vertical dimensions of thorax
- Ribs elevate due to: contraction of ext intercostals, cartilage twists to elevate, vertebrae acts as leverage
- Lungs expand to fill the space
- –Pleural linkage, drop in Palv
- As lungs expand, air flows in due to neg Palv
Exhalation during tidal/restful breathing
- Palv must be positive (greater than Patmos)
- Volume in lungs decrease
- Diaphragm relaxes back to its dome-shaped position
- Decrease in vertical dimensions of thorax
- External intercostal muscles relax
- Rib cage returns to original position
- Air carrying CO2 is brought to alveoli via blood stream
Passive Expiration in Quiet Breathing
- Relaxation of the respiratory muscles causes air to rush out due to 3 passive forcedL
- –Elastic recoil of lungs and ribcage
- –Force of the untwisting of cartilage near sternum
- –Gravity
- —Air pressure in lungs increased; air flows out; lungs return to resting volume
Inhalation During Restful Breathing
- Controlled involuntary through a network of neurons in the medulla
- –Peripheral nerves carry signals to muscles groups in respiratory system
- Cortical or limbic systems can override brainstem control
- Volume vs pressure-controlled exhalation
Respiration During Sustained Phonation
- Inspiratory and expiratory muscles play a role in maintaining alveolar pressure
- Lung volume slowly decreases
Muscle Activity During Sustained Phonation
-Each muscle group plays a unique role in the inspiratory or expiratory phase or both
Respiratory System During Speaking
- Lung volume, alveolar pressure, and muscular involvement is much more varied because phonation is broken up due to a number of factors such as changing in:
- —Voicing
- –Stress
- –Intonation
- –Utterance and word length
Volume and Pressure during Connected Speech
- Lung volume= midrange in vital capacity
- –Pressure can more easily remain + as muscles impose pressure on system
- Alveolar pressure= steady during convo
- –Increases occur during stress or intonation differences
- –Muscular pressure must be recruited to maintain added pressure
- Louder speech requires:
- –Increase in Palv
- –Increase in muscular force
- –Begin phonatory phase with larger lung volumes
Pressure and Muscle Involvement During Connected Speech
- In order to maintain targetted alveolar pressure, muscular pressure increases as exhalation continues
- –Rib cage wall muscles
- –Abdominal wall muscles
Neural Innervation for Active Breathing
- Involves voluntary motor activity
- –Both cortical and subcortical structures
- Varies in conscious control
Speech Breathing
- More air is inhaled than in quiet breathing (especially for loud or long utterances)
- Accessory muscles of neck, chest, abdomen, and back may assist in expanding and slowly decreasing the thoracic cavity
- Control is more voluntary and concious than in quiet breathing
- Exhalation is slower and takes up more of the respiratory cycle
- –Quiet breathing: Inhale 40%; exhal 60%
- –Speech breathing: in 10%, rx 90%
Parkinson’s Disease
- Degeneration of dopamine in substantia nigra
- Disorder effects motor control including initiation, coordination, and termination of voluntary movement
- Movement described as:
- –Increase in muscle tone
- –Shakiness
- –Rigid
- –Slow
- –Lack of balance
Cerebellar Disease
- Cerebellar damage (ataxia); impairment in coordination
- Speech characteristics:
- –Voice fluctuations
- –Phoneme and syllable prolongation
- –Slow rate of speech
- –Abnormal prosody
- –Reduced respiratory control
- Impaired coordination effects the speakers ability to control breathing, voicing, and articulators
Cervical Spinal Cord Injury
- Injury to part of SC that supplies nerve impulses to the muscles of respiration
- –Weakness or paralysis
- –Diaphragm damage will require mechanical ventilation
- Speech characteristics
- –Reduced loudness
- –Imprecise coordination
- –Short breath groups
- –Slow inspirations
- –WNL resting tidal volume and breathing rate
- Treatment focuses on building respiratory strength
