Exam 1 Key Terms

Question 1

Biogeosphere

Answer 1

The region of the earth extending from the surface of the upper crust to the maximum depth at which organic life exists

Question 2

Sedimentation

Answer 2

the process of settling or being deposited as a sediment

Question 3

Milankovitch Cycles

Answer 3

Milankovitch cycles refer to variations in Earth’s orbit and axial tilt that occur over long periods of time, influencing climate patterns and driving changes in the Earth’s climate over geological timescales. These cycles are named after Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch, who developed the theory in the early 20th century.

There are three primary Milankovitch cycles:

1. Eccentricity: This cycle describes changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, ranging from more elliptical (higher eccentricity) to more circular (lower eccentricity). Eccentricity cycles occur on timescales of hundreds of thousands of years.
2. Obliquity: Also known as axial tilt, this cycle refers to changes in the angle of Earth’s axial tilt relative to its orbital plane. Variations in obliquity can influence the distribution of solar radiation received at different latitudes, affecting seasonal differences in temperature. Obliquity cycles occur on timescales of tens of thousands of years.
3. Precession: Precession refers to the gradual wobbling of Earth’s axis of rotation, similar to the way a spinning top wobbles as it slows down. This wobbling motion causes changes in the orientation of Earth’s axis relative to the fixed stars over time. Precession affects the timing of the seasons and can influence the intensity of the seasons in different hemispheres. Precession cycles occur on timescales of thousands of years.

Milankovitch cycles are considered one of the key drivers of long-term climate variability on Earth, playing a significant role in shaping ice age cycles and other climate changes over geological timescales. These cycles interact with each other and with other factors, such as changes in atmospheric composition and volcanic activity, to influence Earth’s climate.

Question 4

Commodity

Answer 4

a raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold, such as copper or coffee.

Question 5

Tragedy of the Commons

Answer 5

a situation in which individuals with access to a public resource (also called a common) act in their own interest and, in doing so, ultimately deplete the resource

Question 6

Externalities

Answer 6

a side effect or consequence of an industrial or commercial activity that affects other parties without this being reflected in the cost of the goods or services involved, such as the pollination of surrounding crops by bees kept for honey.

Question 7

Ecosystem Services

Answer 7

the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being,

Question 8

Public Goods

Answer 8

Public goods are goods or services that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous in consumption, meaning that they are available to everyone and one person’s consumption of the good does not diminish its availability to others. In other words, individuals cannot be effectively excluded from using the good, and the consumption of the good by one person does not reduce its availability for others to consume. For example naional defense, public parks and recreation facilities, street lighting, clean air and water.

Question 9

The “Free Gifts” of Nature

Answer 9

The “free gifts” of nature refer to the natural resources and ecosystem services that are provided by the environment without direct cost to humans. These gifts are essential for human well-being and survival and include a wide range of resources and services, such as:

1. Clean air and water: The atmosphere and bodies of water naturally provide clean air for breathing and water for drinking, irrigation, and other uses.
2. Soil fertility: Soils naturally provide nutrients and support plant growth, which is essential for agriculture and food production.
3. Biodiversity: The diversity of plant and animal species provides various ecosystem services, such as pollination, pest control, and nutrient cycling, which support ecosystem health and human livelihoods.
4. Climate regulation: Natural processes, such as the absorption of carbon dioxide by forests and oceans, help regulate the Earth’s climate and mitigate climate change impacts.
5. Scenic beauty and recreational opportunities: Natural landscapes, such as mountains, forests, and beaches, provide opportunities for recreation, tourism, and aesthetic enjoyment.
6. Genetic resources: Biodiversity provides a vast array of genetic resources that can be used in medicine, agriculture, and other fields.

These “free gifts” of nature are often taken for granted, but they are essential for sustaining life on Earth and supporting human societies. Recognizing their value and implementing sustainable management practices is crucial for preserving these resources for future generations.

Question 10

Stock/Flow Resources

Answer 10

Stock flow resources are physically transformed into what they produce, which means they are used up in the act of production. A tree is transformed into a house, and fossil energy is transformed into alternative forms of energy or waste. Stock flow resources can be stockpiled.

Question 11

Cap & Trade

Answer 11

a government regulatory program designed to limit, or cap, the total level of emissions of certain chemicals, particularly carbon dioxide, as a result of industrial activity. Firms can sell unused emissions certificates to each other.

Question 12

Non-point Source Pollution

Answer 12

caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and ground waters.

Question 13

Capital Incentives

Answer 13

Capital incentives refer to financial or economic incentives provided to encourage investment in certain areas or activities. These incentives are typically offered by governments, businesses, or other organizations to stimulate economic growth, promote specific industries or technologies, or achieve particular policy objectives. Capital incentives can take various forms, including:

1. Tax incentives: Tax breaks or credits offered to businesses or individuals for investing in designated areas, industries, or activities. These incentives can reduce the tax burden on investors and make investment more attractive.
2. Subsidies: Financial assistance provided by governments or other organizations to support specific industries, projects, or activities. Subsidies can help offset costs and encourage investment in areas that might not be financially viable otherwise.
3. Grants and loans: Direct financial assistance provided in the form of grants or low-interest loans to support investment in targeted areas or projects. Grants do not need to be repaid, while loans typically require repayment with interest, although often at more favorable terms than those available from commercial lenders.
4. Rebates and incentives: Cash rebates or other incentives offered to individuals or businesses for purchasing or adopting certain products or technologies. These incentives can help drive consumer demand and accelerate the adoption of new technologies or practices.

Capital incentives are commonly used as a tool for economic development, innovation, and environmental sustainability. By encouraging investment in strategic areas, governments and organizations can stimulate growth, create jobs, and address pressing societal challenges. However, the effectiveness of capital incentives can vary depending on factors such as the design of the incentive program, market conditions, and regulatory frameworks.

Question 14

Ecological Modernization

Answer 14

Ecological modernization is an approach that seeks to reconcile environmental sustainability with economic development and technological innovation. It involves adopting policies and practices that aim to reduce environmental degradation and resource depletion while promoting economic growth and technological advancement. This approach emphasizes the integration of environmental concerns into industrial processes, product design, and consumption patterns, with the goal of achieving sustainable development.

Question 15

Treadmill of Production

Answer 15

The treadmill of production is a concept that describes the relentless drive for economic growth and increased production within industrial societies, often at the expense of environmental sustainability and social well-being. It suggests that societies are caught in a cycle where the pursuit of profit and economic expansion leads to ever-increasing demands for resources, energy, and labor, resulting in environmental degradation, social inequalities, and unsustainable consumption patterns. Despite efforts to mitigate these negative impacts, the treadmill of production perpetuates a cycle of growth and consumption that is difficult to escape without fundamental changes to economic systems and societal values.

Question 16

Just-In-Time Production

Answer 16

Just-in-time (JIT) production is a manufacturing strategy that aims to minimize inventory and waste by producing goods only as they are needed in the production process, thereby reducing costs and improving efficiency. Instead of stockpiling large inventories of raw materials and finished goods, JIT systems rely on synchronized production schedules, efficient supply chains, and rapid response to customer demand.

In a JIT system, materials are delivered to the production line exactly when they are needed, eliminating the need for excess inventory and reducing the risk of obsolescence or waste. This approach requires close coordination between suppliers and manufacturers, as well as flexible production processes that can quickly adapt to changes in demand. Just-in-time production is commonly associated with lean manufacturing principles and has been widely adopted in industries such as automotive manufacturing, electronics, and fast-moving consumer goods.

Question 17

Jevons Paradox

Answer 17

Jevons Paradox, named after the 19th-century economist William Stanley Jevons, describes a phenomenon where increases in the efficiency of resource use result in higher overall consumption of that resource rather than the expected decrease. In other words, as technology improves and makes the use of a resource more efficient, the total consumption of that resource tends to rise rather than fall.

For example, if a new, more fuel-efficient car is introduced to the market, consumers may be inclined to drive more because it costs less to do so per mile. This increased driving activity can offset the expected decrease in fuel consumption per mile driven, leading to overall higher fuel consumption despite the individual vehicles being more fuel-efficient.

Jevons Paradox highlights the complexity of resource consumption and suggests that simply improving efficiency may not be sufficient to achieve sustainability goals if it leads to increased overall consumption of resources. Addressing this paradox often requires a combination of efficiency improvements, behavioral changes, and systemic approaches to resource management and conservation.

Question 18

Cost Disease

Answer 18

Cost disease, also known as Baumol’s cost disease, is an economic concept that describes the phenomenon where the costs of labor-intensive services or sectors rise over time without a corresponding increase in productivity or efficiency. The term was coined by economist William Baumol in the 1960s.

Cost disease occurs because some sectors of the economy, such as education, healthcare, and the arts, rely heavily on labor and face limited opportunities for productivity gains compared to other sectors, such as manufacturing or technology. In these sectors, the productivity improvements that typically drive down costs in other industries are harder to achieve due to the nature of the work involved.

As a result, wages tend to rise in these labor-intensive sectors to keep pace with wages in other industries, even though productivity remains relatively stagnant. This leads to a continual increase in the cost of providing goods and services in these sectors over time, outpacing inflation and putting pressure on budgets for both public and private organizations.

Addressing cost disease often requires innovative approaches to improve productivity and efficiency in labor-intensive sectors without sacrificing quality or accessibility of services. This can involve investments in technology, process improvements, and changes to organizational structures and incentives.

Question 19

(Degraded) Carrying Capacity

Answer 19

Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size of a species that a specific environment can sustain indefinitely, given the resources available. It’s a fundamental concept in ecology and environmental science. However, when we refer to “degraded carrying capacity,” we are talking about a situation where the natural capacity of an environment to support a population has been reduced or compromised due to environmental degradation, pollution, habitat loss, or other human-induced factors.

In essence, degraded carrying capacity means that the environment’s ability to provide resources and support life has been diminished, potentially leading to decreased population sizes, increased competition for resources, and heightened vulnerability to environmental stressors. It underscores the importance of sustainable resource management and conservation efforts to restore and preserve ecosystems and their capacity to support life.

Question 20

Peak Resources

Answer 20

a concept related to the point in time when a particular resource reaches its maximum production rate and then begins to decline. This concept is often applied to non-renewable resources such as oil, natural gas, coal, and certain minerals.

When a resource reaches its peak production, it doesn’t mean that the resource is completely depleted. Instead, it signifies that it becomes increasingly difficult and costly to extract the resource, leading to a decline in production over time. This decline can have significant implications for economies and societies that rely heavily on the resource, as it may lead to increased prices, shifts in energy policies, and the need for alternative sources of energy or materials.

The concept of peak resources has led to discussions about the importance of resource conservation, efficiency, and the development of renewable or sustainable alternatives to mitigate the impacts of resource depletion.

Question 21

Circular Economies

Answer 21

Circular economies are economic systems designed to maximize the use of resources, minimize waste, and promote sustainability by keeping materials and products in use for as long as possible through recycling, reuse, and regeneration. In a circular economy, resources are managed in loops or cycles rather than being disposed of after a single use, thus reducing the need for new resource extraction and minimizing environmental impact.

Key principles of circular economies include:

1. Designing out waste and pollution: Products are designed with a focus on durability, reparability, and recyclability to minimize waste and environmental impact.
2. Keeping products and materials in use: Emphasis is placed on extending the lifespan of products through reuse, refurbishment, and remanufacturing, thereby maximizing their value and reducing the need for new production.
3. Recycling and recovering materials: Materials are recycled and reintegrated into the production process to create new products or generate energy, reducing the demand for virgin resources.
4. Regenerating natural systems: Efforts are made to restore and regenerate ecosystems and natural resources through sustainable land use, conservation, and restoration practices.

Circular economies offer numerous benefits, including reducing resource consumption, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, promoting innovation, and creating economic opportunities through the development of new industries and business models. As a result, they are increasingly being recognized as a promising approach to addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable development.

Question 22

Core, Semi-Periphery, and Periphery

Answer 22

The Core and Periphery model was developed in 1963 by John Friedmann, and it describes spatially how economic, political, and cultural authority is spread out in core and periphery regions.

Core: USA, UK, Canada
Semi-Periphery: China, Russia
Periphery: African nations

Question 23

Dependent Development

Answer 23

This form of development has historically concerned the efforts to export primary resources from countries which are resource-rich but industry-poor. Instead of looking at the nations of the world and treating their economic labor equally, it makes the case that developed nations are able to force unequal exchanges on developing nations. This in effect stunts the economic growth and development of the nations which are dependent on the more industrial nations, which also happen to be more prosperous and economically advanced.

Question 24

Global Division of Labor

Answer 24

A global division of labor associated with the growth of transnational corporations and the deindustrialization of the advanced economies. The most common pattern is for research and development in more economically developed countries, and cheap, less skilled labor in less economically developed countries.

Question 25

Global Commodity Chains

Answer 25

An internationally integrated process of economic links between corporations and workers whereby commodities are gathered, transformed into goods and services, and distributed to consumers across the world.

Question 26

Ecologically Unequal Exchange

Answer 26

It considers the inequities hidden in the monetary value of trade flows not only in terms of wages, and quantities of labor but also regarding materials, energy and environmental degradation

Question 27

Transnational Institutions

Answer 27

An entity that operates beyond national boundaries with the support of at least one nation.

Question 28

Transnational Corporations

Answer 28

an enterprise that controls assets of other entities in economies other than its home economy, usually by owning a certain equity capital stake

Question 29

Simple Scarcity Conflicts

Answer 29

Simple scarcity conflicts arise when there is competition or conflict over limited resources such as land, water, food, or energy. These conflicts occur when demand for these resources exceeds their availability, leading to tensions, disputes, and sometimes violence between individuals, groups, or nations vying for access or control. Simple scarcity conflicts often occur in contexts where resources are unequally distributed, exacerbating competition and potential for conflict.

Question 30

Group-Identity Conflicts

Answer 30

are disputes or tensions between different groups of people based on their distinct identities, such as ethnicity, religion, or nationality.

Question 31

Relative-Depravation Conflicts

Answer 31

Relative deprivation conflicts occur when individuals or groups feel they are unfairly disadvantaged or deprived in comparison to others, even if their absolute level of deprivation may not be severe. It’s not just about lacking resources; it’s about perceiving that lack as unjust compared to what others have. This perception of relative deprivation can lead to feelings of resentment, frustration, and a sense of injustice, which may fuel social unrest, protests, or even violent conflict as people seek to address what they perceive as unfair inequalities.

Question 32

Resource Nationalism

Answer 32

Resource nationalism refers to the tendency of governments or political movements to assert control over natural resources within their territory or jurisdiction, often with the aim of maximizing benefits for the nation and its citizens. This can involve policies such as increased state ownership or control of resource extraction industries, stricter regulations on foreign investment or exports, and greater government involvement in resource management and revenue distribution.

Resource nationalism can stem from various factors, including a desire to assert sovereignty, protect national interests, and ensure that the wealth generated from natural resources stays within the country rather than being exploited by foreign entities. However, it can also lead to tensions with multinational corporations, trade partners, and international institutions, as well as concerns about the efficiency, transparency, and sustainability of resource governance.