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Biology 201 > Exam 1: Evolution > Flashcards

Exam 1: Evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

Extant Species

A

a species that is still living; surviving

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2
Q

Extinct Species

A

a species no longer in existence

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3
Q

Archipelago

A

a group of islands; this is important because Darwin and Wallace both discovered the theory of natural selection studying unique species between islands in an archipelago

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4
Q

Wallace Line

A

a boundary that separates animals between Asia and Australia, based upon their appearance; this supports the theory of natural selection

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5
Q

Natural Selection

A

the term coined by Darwin that proves how species change and adapt to their environment to survive

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6
Q

Variation

A

the differing physical characteristics within on species

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7
Q

Competition

A

the factor that determines what species has better adaptations

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8
Q

Intertidal Zone

A

an area in marine aquatic environments that is covered w/ water at high tide, but exposed when water retreats at low tide

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9
Q

Evolution

A

the change in the genetic composition of a POPULATION across generations; DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION

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10
Q

Differential Survival

A

when some individuals in a population are more likely to survive than others due to differences in trait values

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11
Q

Genetic Drift

A

when survival is NOT differential, but heritable variation exists, the population may evolve but the mechanism of evolution is NOT natural selection

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12
Q

Common Garden Experiment

A

individuals from different populations or species are raised together in a controlled setting

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13
Q

Population

A

a group of individuals that live in the same place at the same time

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14
Q

Common Ancestors

A

ancestors that two individuals share

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15
Q

Most Recent Common Ancestors

A

the ancestor that two individuals share most recently; ex is my sister and I’s most recent common ancestor is our mom

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16
Q

Particulate Inheritance

A

genes are passed down across generations as separate entities and they can persist across generations even when they are not visibly expressed; ex is two purple flowers making a white flower

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17
Q

Blending Inheritance

A

the characteristics of the parents are averaged in some way to determine the characteristics of each offspring; ex of this is when two different dog breeds mate to have a mixed breed

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18
Q

What are Mendels two laws?

A

Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment

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19
Q

Law of Segregation

A

Mendels 1st law; each individual has 2 gene copies at each locus and these gene copies segregate during gamete production, so that only one copy goes into each gamete

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20
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

Mendels 2nd law; the allele that is passed down to the next generation at one locus is independent of the allele that is passed down to the next generation at another locus; ex of this is seed shape and flower color being two separate alleles

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21
Q

Phenotype

A

the observable physical, developmental, and behavioral characteristics; ex is blond hair or blue eyes

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22
Q

Genotype

A

the combination of alleles that an individual has at a given locus; ex is AA, Aa, aa

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23
Q

Allele

A

different variants of the same gene; A or a

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24
Q

Locus

A

the physical location of gene copies on the chromosome

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25
Q

Gene

A

a sequence of DNA that specifies a functional product

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26
Q

Homozygote

A

containing alleles for ONLY ONE TRAIT for any given character / two copies of same allele; AA or aa

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27
Q

Heterozygote

A

containing alleles for TWO TRAITS for a given character / two different alleles; Aa

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28
Q

Dominant

A

a trait that is physically observed both when it is homozygous and heterozygous; AA or Aa

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29
Q

Recessive

A

a trait that is observed only when it is homozygous; aa

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30
Q

Genotype Frequency

A

the amount of a specific genotype in a population divided by the total number of individuals in the population

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31
Q

Allele Frequency

A

the amount of a specific allele in a population divided by the total number of alleles in the population (individuals * 2)

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32
Q

Equilibrium

A

a state of the population such that genotype frequencies DO NOT change from generation to generation

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33
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Model

A

a null model for how genotype frequencies relate to allele frequencies in large populations and how they change over time in the absence of evolutionary forces (natural selection, mutation, migration, random mating, genetic drift)

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34
Q

Null Model

A

a model that provides a baseline for comparison

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35
Q

Fitness

A

a measure of the relative lifetime reproductive success of a specific genotype/phenotype; how evolutionarily successful an individual is within a certain environment, relative to other individuals

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36
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

there is NO difference between prediction and observation

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37
Q

Alternative Hypothesis

A

there will be an expected difference between prediction and observation

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38
Q

What characterizes a statistically significant difference?

A

a number greater than 0.05

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39
Q

Selection Coefficent

A

”s”; a measure of the strength of natural selection for or against a specific phenotype or genotype
***the larger the selection coefficient, the stronger the action of natural selection

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40
Q

Fixation

A

when an allele replaces all other alternative alleles in a population and the frequency of that allele goes to 1; f(allele) = 1

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41
Q

Directional Selection

A

when selection drives a phenotype in a single direction towards fixation of a single, favored allele

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42
Q

Overdominance/Heterozygote Advantage

A

a form of frequency independent selection in which heterozygote genotypes have higher fitness than the corresponding homozygote genotypes

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43
Q

Polymorphism

A

two or more different phenotypes

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44
Q

Underdominance/Homozygote Advantage

A

a form of frequency independent selection in which the heterozygote genotype has a lower fitness than either homozygote genotype

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45
Q

Frequency Dependent Selection

A

a form of selection in which the fitness associated with a trait or genotype depends on the frequency of that trait in a population

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46
Q

Survival

A

the existence of organisms which are best adapted to their environment

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47
Q

Fecundity

A

a measure of the ability to produce offspring

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48
Q

Polygyny

A

a mating system in which a male mates with more than one female, but each female mates with only one male during mating season

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49
Q

Monogamy

A

a mating system in which a male only mates with a single female and vise versa during a mating season

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50
Q

Anisogamy

A

form of sexual reproduction in which the zygote is formed from the union of two gametes of unequal size and unlike form; by convention, the sex producing the larger gamete is female (egg) and the smaller gamete is male (sperm)

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51
Q

Sexual Selection

A

form of evolution by natural selection that acts on traits affecting mating success; two types (male-male competition or female choice)

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52
Q

Male-Male Competition

A

a form of sexual selection in which males compete for access to mates

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53
Q

Female Choice

A

a form of sexual selection in which females choose their mates

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54
Q

Intrasexual Selection

A

when one sex directly competes with members of the same sex for mating opportunities; this drives the evolution of secondary sex characteristics that improve fighting ability (Male-Male competition)

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55
Q

Intersexual Selection

A

when one sex chooses a mate from members of the opposite sex; this drives evolution of secondary sex characteristics that highlight ornaments to make members of the chosen sex more attractive to the choosing sex (Female Choice)

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56
Q

Direct Benefits

A

parental care, resources, protection

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57
Q

Indirect Benefits

A

attractiveness leading to more mating

58
Q

What are the 2 Hypotheses about Indirect Benefits?

A

Good Genes and Runaway Sexual Selection (or “Sexy Sons”)

59
Q

Good Genes Hypothesis

A

showy males offer genes that increase fitness of a females offspring by ensuring heterozygosity or conferring advantages such as disease resistance

60
Q

Runaway Sexual Selection (“Sexy Sons”) Hypothesis

A

constant evolutionary feedback loop that produces sons with a desirable/attractive trait, and daughters that desire those traits until that trait reaches a point of no further evolutionary benefit

61
Q

Actor

A

an animal performing behavior

62
Q

Recipient

A

an animal affected by the actors behavior

63
Q

Mutual Benefit

A

actor and recipient both benefit because they both directly increase their fitness; ex is pack hunting

64
Q

Selfishness

A

only benefits the actor; ex is lions battling for mates

65
Q

Altruism

A

only benefits recipient; ex is blood-bat meal regurgitation

66
Q

Spite

A

neither the actor nor recipient gain anything; ex is humans

67
Q

Group-Selectionist

A

a debunked theory that thought individuals were willing to engage in altruistic behaviors to benefit the group

68
Q

When is Reciprocity favored?

A
  • benefit for recipient is greater than cost to actor
  • frequent opportunities for repayment
  • individuals can recognize each other and remember past behavior
69
Q

Relatedness

A

how many alleles, on average, two individuals have in common

70
Q

Coefficient of Relatedness

A

“r”; proportion of individual total genotypes identical to others; 0 is unrelated —> 1 is twins
ex is I have 1/2 of my moms alleles, so my “r” with my mom is 0.5

71
Q

When is Cooperation favored?

A
  • actor and recipient are closely related
  • benefits to the recipient are relatively large and/or
  • costs of behavior are relatively small
72
Q

Kin Selection

A

indirect benefits are greatest when helping a close relative

73
Q

Haplodiploidy

A

sisters are more closely related than any other relatives; “r” = 0.75

74
Q

Eusocial Species

A

“truly social” species that have 3 attributes…
- strict division of reproductive labor
- cooperative care of young
- overlapping generations

75
Q

Transition

A

when a purine (A or G) is replaced by a purine, or a pyrimidine (T or C) is replaced by a pyrimidine

76
Q

Transversion

A

when a purine replaces a pyrimidine and vise versa

77
Q

Synonymous Mutation

A

when a base change does not change the codon it specifies for

78
Q

Nonsynonymous Mutation

A

when a base change alters the codon it specifies for

79
Q

Nonsense Mutation

A

when a base substitution creates a stop codon where there was not one previously

80
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

when an insertion or deletion of bases does not happen in a multiple of 3, disrupting the translation of amino acids

81
Q

Inversion

A

form of chromosomal rearrangement in which the orientation of a stretch of a chromosome is reversed

82
Q

Translocation

A

a form of chromosomal rearrangement in which a section of a chromosome is moved to a non-homologous chromosome

83
Q

Meiosis

A

the process of cell division that reduces chromosome number in half and leads to the production of 4 gamete cells

84
Q

Crossing-Over

A

a type of recombination during Meiosis where segments of DNA are physically exchanged on homologous chromosomes

85
Q

Directed Mutations

A

mutations that are not randomly selected with respect to effects on fitness

86
Q

Undirected Mutations

A

mutations that are generated at random with respect to their effects on fitness

87
Q

Poisson Distribution

A

when the variance is equal to the mean

88
Q

Beneficial Mutations

A

mutations that have a positive effect on an organisms fitness

89
Q

Deleterious Mutations

A

*most common; mutations that have a negative effect on an organisms fitness

90
Q

Neutral Mutations

A

mutations that have neither a positive nor negative effect on an organisms fitness

91
Q

Mutation Selection Balance

A

An equilibrium frequency of deleterious mutations in which these deleterious mutations are maintained at a positive frequency in a population because of a balance between ongoing deleterious mutation and the purging effect of natural selection

92
Q

Why do people struggle to accept the fact of evolution? (Lecture 2)

A

Usually it is due to religious beliefs or lack of education on the subject

93
Q

Why is it critical to tackle acceptance of evolution in our society? (Lecture 2)

A

It could help prevent disease outbreaks

94
Q

Young Earth Creationism (Lecture 2)

A

the original theory that species are young and the earth is not old, that species are completely independent of one another or unrelated, and that they were created in their present form and have not changed over time; this is the religious viewpoint

95
Q

Lamarck’s Theory (Lecture 2)

A

evolution occured through the inheritance of acquired characteristics; believed that change is happening through INDIVIDUALS in ONE GENERATION and that they changed in response to the environment and passed those changes to offspring; similar to Darwins theory

96
Q

Darwins Theory (Lecture 2)

A

descent with modification by means of natural selection in a POPULATION over MANY GENERATIONS; his example was using pigeon offspring and comparing fanciness of tails over generations; an example from our lifetime is covid

97
Q

Analogous Traits

A

organs that have similar functions; ex is bird and butterfly wings

98
Q

Homologous Traits

A

structures that share similar embryonic origins relative to their functions, so human hands, bird wings, dog paws, horse hooves all have relatively same structures but different functions

99
Q

Can something be analogous and homologus?

A

Yes, bird and bat wings are an example because they share the same structure and function

100
Q

Vestigial Traits

A

traits that had a purpose in ancestors but don’t have function anymore; ex is wings on flightless birds

101
Q

Inherited Traits

A

traits that are directly passed down from parents to offspring; ex is both of my parents having blue eyes so I will have blue eyes

102
Q

Heritable Traits

A

traits that we have a high likelihood of receiving but not guaranteed; ex is height, both of my parents can be tall and I have a high likelihood of being tall as well, but it is not guaranteed

***heritability is a characteristic of a population, not a family pedigree

103
Q

What are the 3 requirements for Evolution by Natural Selection?

A

Variation, Heritability, Reproductive Success

104
Q

If a trait was not heritable, what would happen?

A

Everybody would have the same trait; ex is if height was not heritable everyone would be the same height

105
Q

Phylogeny

A

a model or hypothesis of the branching relationships of populations as one ancestral population gives rise to 2 descendant populations

106
Q

Clade (monophyletic group)

A

a collection of branches and nodes that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants

107
Q

Paraphyletic Group

A

groups that DO NOT contain all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor

108
Q

Parsimony

A

model that requires the fewest number of evolutionary changes in the traits under consideration; this is the most likely explanation of evolution

109
Q

Mendelian Genetics

A

describes how alleles are transmitted from INDIVIDUAL PARENTS TO INDIVIDUAL OFFSPRING; ex is sickle cell where AA is normal, AS is normal, and SS is anemic

110
Q

Population Genetics

A

the transmission of alleles in a population from one generation to the next

111
Q

What is “p” is HW Equilibrium?

A

it is the frequency of the “A” or dominant allele

112
Q

What does “q” mean in HW Equilibrium?

A

it is the frequency of the “a” or recessive allele

113
Q

How to solve the frequency of an allele, “p” or “q”, in a population

A

number of alleles in the population divided by total alleles in the population

114
Q

P + Q = ?

A

1

115
Q

How to solve the frequency of “AA” or homozygous dominant genotype in the population

A

p squared; p*p

116
Q

How to solve the frequency of “Aa” or heterozygous genotype in the population

A

2pq; 2pq

117
Q

How to solve the frequency of “aa” or homozygous recessive genotype in the population

A

q squared; q*q

118
Q

What assumptions do we make with the HW Model?

A
  • no mutation
  • no selection
  • no migration
  • infinitely large population size
  • random mating
119
Q

Can Mendelian inheritance be considered an evolutionary force?

A

No because frequencies like ‘p’ and ‘q’ do not change

120
Q

f(AA) + f(Aa) + f(aa) = ?

A

1

121
Q

Which two conditions need to be met for a population to be in HW Equilibrium?

A
  • genotype frequencies are p^2, 2pq, q^2
  • genotype frequencies are not changing over time
122
Q

How to solve for absolute fitness

A

take the number recaptured and divide that by the original number

123
Q

How to solve for Relative Fitness

A

take the largest absolute fitness number and divide it by every other absolute fitness

124
Q

How to solve for selection coefficient

A

1 - relative fitness

125
Q

What does p’ stand for?

A

the frequency of the allele ‘A’ after one generation of selection

126
Q

If selection is acting against recessive homozygotes, does p = f(A) always increase over time?

A

P always increases unless it is equal to 0 or 1 because that means its either not in the gene pool or is the whole gene pool

127
Q

Is it more beneficial for an allele to have a higher selection coefficient or lower?

A

Lower; the higher the selection coefficient (s) the less the chance of survival

128
Q

What happens when selection is acting against a rare dominant allele?

A

Natural selection drives its frequency down very fast because the phenotype is visible and very easy to eliminate

129
Q

What happens when selection acts against a rare recessive allele?

A

Natural selection slowly drives down its frequency because it is able to remain hidden from selection in heterozygotes

130
Q

Sexual Dimorphism

A

Sexes have different phenotypes

131
Q

How do females and males differ in terms of reproduction?

A
  • Females have few eggs that are expensive, whereas males have many sperm that are cheap
  • women can be pregnant for months-years
  • females engage in more parental care
132
Q

What is the primary limit on male fitness?

A

The ability to attract mates

133
Q

What is the primary limit on female fitness?

A

the ability to gain resources to produce eggs and rear young

134
Q

The “Sexy Sons” hypothesis supports what idea?

A

females want offspring to be attractive like her mates to have a greater chance at attracting their own mates

135
Q

Do monogamous species tend to be sexually dimorphic?

A

no, humans are but we are the exception

136
Q

Why would animals like deer produce sons in resource-rich years and females in resource-poor years?

A

the data shows this phenomenon because female deer only want to make males if it means they are going to be large; in a resource-poor year she wants to make females because they will survive very easily with low resources, whereas males will be significantly smaller and become poor offspring

137
Q

Why wouldn’t we expect individuals in large groups of species be altruistic and restrict their reproduction to avoid overpopulation?

A

We want our alleles to survive past our generation, therefore if we forego that then our alleles would not survive

138
Q

Why is blood sharing between bat considered altruistic (reciprocal altruism)?

A

the benefits of the receiver outweigh the cost of the donor

139
Q

Hamiltons Rule

A

individuals should be more willing to perform altruistic acts for kin than for non-kin

140
Q

Hamiltons Rule Equation

A

Br - C > 0
- B: benefit to the recipient
- r: coefficient of relatedness
- C: cost to donor

141
Q

5 Pieces of Evidence we have for evolution

A
  • fossil geography / resemblance to fossils
  • homology (similarities to anatomical structure among species but difference in function)
  • Vestigial structures
  • Genetics / change over time
  • Geographic distribution

Biology 201 (1 decks)

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