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Social Research Methods > Exam 1 (Chapters 1–6) > Flashcards

Exam 1 (Chapters 1–6) Flashcards

1
Q

Sociology

A

The scientific study of the social lives of individuals, groups, and societies.

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2
Q

Mission of Sociology

A

To help us understand the behaviors, beliefs, and feelings of the people within society so that we can answer key questions about the human condition.

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3
Q

Macrosociology

A

The study of large-scale social systems.

Large-scale social systems include the economy and the political establishment.

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4
Q

Microsociology

A

The study of personal concerns and interpersonal interactions.

Example: The interactions between a doctor and his/her patient.

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5
Q

Sociological Imagination

A

The distinctive viewpoint that sociology takes.

The sociological imagination is a perspective that recognizes how our personal experiences are shaped by macrosocial and historical forces (i.e. it helps us see the link between macro-level and micro-level social phenomena).

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6
Q

Who developed the concept of the sociological imagination?

A

C. Wright Mills

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7
Q

Generalizability

A

The extent to which results/conclusions obtained from one population can be applied to other populations.

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8
Q

Agency

A

An individual’s capacity to make their own decisions and act autonomously (i.e. their free will).

An individual’s agency is inversely related to the social structures surrounding/guiding them.

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9
Q

Social Structures

A

The patterned social arrangements that make up our societies.

Social structures can either constrain or facilitate our choices and opportunities.

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10
Q

Intersectionality

A

A theoretical tradition that emphasizes how one’s overlapping identities and group memberships are critical to their life experiences.

Intersectionality seeks to understand how social hierachies (that are based on particular axes of inequality) overlap with one another.

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11
Q

Anthropology

A

The study of societies and cultures (and often with a non-Western focus).

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12
Q

Cultural Relativism

A

The practice of refraining from making judgements about the behaviors/patterns that are observed and instead adopting the viewpoint of the socieites being studied.

Anthropologists differ from sociologists via their commitment to cultural relativism.

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13
Q

Psychology

A

The study of individual behaviors, attitudes, and emotions (and how these behaviors/attitudes/emotions come about).

Psychology differs from sociology via its predominant focus on the individual.

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14
Q

History

A

The study of past events, social movements, and cultural patterns.

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15
Q

Economics

A

The study of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Economics differs from sociology via it sole usage of quantitative data (e.g. surveys and official statistics).

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16
Q

Political Science

A

The study of the policies, laws, and processes of government institutions, political actors, and political systems.

Political science differs from sociology via its smaller/narrower scope of study.

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17
Q

Basic Research

A

A form of research that seeks to answer thereotically informed questions or to resolve intellectual puzzles about social behavior.

Basic research is thought of as the search for knowledge “for knowledge’s sake”.

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18
Q

Applied Research

A

A form of research that seeks to answer concrete problems (in the “real” world) or to evaluate a policy/program.

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19
Q

Qualitative Methods

A

Research methods that collect and analyze data to enable rich description via words or images.

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20
Q

Quantitative Methods

A

Research methods that rely on data which can be summarized/represented with numbers.

Example: Survey Research

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21
Q

Mixed-Methods Approach

A

A general research approach that uses more than one method in a single study.

The mixed-methods approach is also referred to as triangulation.

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22
Q

Cross-Sectional Study

A

A type of study that collects data at a single point in time.

The cross-sectional study design provides researchers with a “snapshot” of the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of a population at a particular point in time.

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23
Q

Limitation of the Cross-Sectional Study Design

A

The study design cannot help inform/understand social or historical change.

The study design cannot assess causal ordering (i.e. causality).

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24
Q

Repeated Cross-Sectional Study Design (Trend Design)

A

A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at multiple time points (but from different individuals at each time point).

The study design cannot show how/if a particular individual changed their views over time.

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25
Q

Panel Design

A

A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected on the same subjects at multiple time points.

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26
Q

Longitudinal Study Designs

A

Study designs that involve data collection at multiple points in time.

Strength: Can be used to assess causal ordering (i.e. causality) and change over time.

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27
Q

Strengths of Cross-Sectional Studies

A
  • Simple/Straightforward
  • (Relatively) Inexpensive
  • Recontacting Subjects is Unnecessary
  • Quick Implementation
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28
Q

Causality

A

A relationship in which one factor/variable is dependent upon (“caused”) by another factor/variable.

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29
Q

Cohort Study Design

A

A type of longitudinal study design in which data are collected from a particular cohort (i.e. a group of individuals that share a common trait/experience) at multiple points in time.

The cohort study design is a type of* panel study design*.

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30
Q

Prospective Study Design

A

A study design that follows particular individuals over time.

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31
Q

Limitations of Longitudinal Studies

A
  • Higher Rates of Attrition
  • Higher Costs

Attrition: The loss of sample members from a panel study over time (usually due to death or dropout).

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32
Q

Unit of Analysis

A

The level of social life to which we want to generalize.

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33
Q

Ecological Fallacy

A

A mistake made by researchers when reaching conclusions about micro-level processes from macro-level analyses.

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34
Q

Scientific Method

A

The systematic process of asking and answering questions in a rigorous and unbiased manner.

The two key aspects of the scientific method are theory and empiricism.

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35
Q

Steps of the Scientific Method

A
  1. Identify an Important Question
  2. Construct a Hypothesis to Answer the Question
  3. Gather Data for Assessing the Hypothesis’s Accuracy
  4. Analyze Data to Determine the Hypothesis’s Accuracy
  5. Draw + Report Conclusions
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36
Q

What are the 3 general conditions that guide question formulation?

A
  1. Social Importance
  2. Scientific Relevance
  3. Feasibility
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37
Q

Literature Review

A

The process of reviewing (“digging deeply”) prior studies written on a particular topic to determine questions that have not yet been thoroughly answered.

The literature is the body of writings on a topic that has accumulated over time.

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38
Q

Value-Free

A

The goal of being objective (i.e. not biased by personal ideologies).

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39
Q

Subjectivity

A

The way in which research is influenced by the perspectives, values, and social experiences of the reseacher.

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40
Q

Reflexivity

A

The process of attending (systematically) to the context of knowledge construction at every step of the research process.

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41
Q

Descriptive Research

A

The type of research that documents or describes trends and variations of social phenomena.

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42
Q

Exploratory Research

A

Research aimed at answering questions of how certain processes/phenomena occur.

The goal of exploratory research is to document (precisely) how particular processes and dynamics develop. This type of research is best addressed with qualitative research methods.

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43
Q

Explanatory Research

A

Research aimed at answering questions of why certain processes/phenomena occur.

Explanatory research seeks to document the causes and effects of social phenomena.

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44
Q

Meritocracy

A

A social system in which an individual’s efforts and skills are proportionally rewarded.

The notion that the United States is a meritocracy is not well supported by data.

45
Q

Theory

A

A sequential argument (consisting of a series of logically related statements) that is put forward to illuminate a certain element of social life.

Theory is an explanation that develops a logical “story” for social phenomena.

46
Q

Empiricism

A

The idea that the world can be subjected to observation (via the use of the sense) to gather data about social phenomena.

47
Q

Dustbowl Empiricism

A

A type of empiricism that is not guided by theory and, thus, becomes simply a set of observations.

48
Q

Descriptive Theory

A

Theory that explains how or why phenomena occur.

49
Q

Explanatory Theory

A

Theory that articulates the processes through which social phenomena develop.

Explanatory theory aims to pose hypotheses that can be empirically tested.

50
Q

Exploratory Theory

A

Theory that provides a framework for researchers to develop more specific hypotheses (that can be empirically tested).

51
Q

Macro Level of Society

A

The broadest conceptualization of social life that focuses on the structure, composition, and processes of society.

52
Q

Meso Level of Society

A

The middle-ground conceptualization of social life that focuses on the physical settings and organizations that link individuals to larger social structures.

53
Q

Micro Level of Society

A

The most intimate conceptualization of social life that focuses on face-to-face interaction and small-group processes.

54
Q

Commonalities Among Theories

A
  1. Testable
  2. Falsifiable
  3. Generalizable
  4. Probabilistic
55
Q

Inductive Approach

A

The process by which researchers formulate a general understandings of social phenomena (i.e. theories) from empirical observations.

The observation of patterns to “build up” to an explanation.

Inductive Approach: Bottom-to-Top Logic

56
Q

Deductive Approach

A

The process by which general theory is translated into specific empirical analysis.

Using an argument to guide/organize empirical observations.

Deductive Approach: Top-to-Bottom Logic

57
Q

Paradigm

A

A broad set of taken-for-granted (and often unacknowledged) assumptions about how social reality is to be defined.

Paradigms facilitate the development of theories and influence which theories a researcher is predisposed to consider.

58
Q

Individualistic Society

A

A society in which reality is viewed through individual actions.

59
Q

Collectivist Society

A

A society in which reality is view throught the lens of group success/failure.

60
Q

Positivism

A

A paradigm claiming that all knowledge can be confirmed/refuted through empirical observation.

August Comte believed that social life could be viewed/analyzed through a positivist lens.

61
Q

Postmodernism

A

A paradigm characterized by significant skepticism of claims about general truths, facts, or principles.

Postmodernism claims that individual values/biases of researchers will always seep into their studies, making objective research on objective truths difficult.

62
Q

Structural Functionalism

A

A macro-level paradigm stating that society must be viewed as a collection of individual parts (each with a unique role) that come together to form a whole.

Any factor/variable that stabilizes the social system is said to be functional. Any factor/variable that destabilizes the social system is said to be dysfunctional.

63
Q

Which paradigm is Talcott Parson’s work most associated with?

A

Structural Functionalism

64
Q

Conflict Perspective

A

A macro-level paradigm contending that the struggle between the powerful and the less powerful is the key element in the understanding of society.

The conflict perspective maintains that society is a collection of competing interests, and that those who have power will use it to sustain their own advantage.

65
Q

Rational Choice

A

A macro-/meso-/micro-level paradigm arguing that people are logical and informed beings who make decisions that will maximize their own interests.

Rational choice applies economic principles to the study of social life.

66
Q

Limitations of Rational Choice

A
  • Power Dynamics are not Considered
  • Social Meanings of Phenomena are not Considered
67
Q

Strength of Rational Choice

A

Agency is Granted to Individuals

Rational choice argues that an individual’s choices ultimately produce outcomes in his/her life.

68
Q

Symbolic Interactionism

A

A micro-level paradigm positing that humans comunicate through symbolic exchange in the form of spoken and unspoken communication.

Symbolic interactionism claims that society plays out through face-to-face interactions.

69
Q

Which paradigm is Karl Marx typically associated with?

A

Conflict Perspective

70
Q

Which paradigm is George Herbert Mead most associated with?

A

Symbolic Interactionism

71
Q

Concept

A

An idea that can be named, defined, and (eventually) measured in some way.

Concepts are abstract in that they exist in the mind through symbols.

72
Q

5 Types of Relations Among Concepts

A
  1. Positive Relation
  2. Negative Relation
  3. Mediation
  4. Moderation
  5. Spuriousness
73
Q

Positive Relationship

Direct Relationship

A

Two concepts are positively correlated (i.e. an increase in one concept leads to an increase in the other concept).

74
Q

Negative Relationship

A

Two concepts are inversely related (i.e. an increase in one concept leads to a decrease in the other concept).

75
Q

Mediation

A

The expected relationship between two concepts is channeled through a third concept that links them together.

76
Q

Moderation

A

The strength of the association between two variables is made weaker/stronger by a third variable.

77
Q

Spuriousness

A

An apparent relationship between two concepts is actually the result of some third concept (i.e. a confounding concept) influencing both of them.

78
Q

Confound

A

A third variable that is linked to two concepts in a way that makes them appear to be related (when they are not related in reality).

79
Q

Hypothesis

A

A testable statement of a relationship between two concepts.

A hypothesis can never be proved; rather, it can only be disproved through falsification.

80
Q

Null Hypothesis

A

The hypothesis predicting that no relationship exists between two concepts (or no difference in the dependent variable exists between two groups).

81
Q

Hypothesis of Difference

A

A testable statement about group differences (regarding a certain topic).

82
Q

Hypothesis of Association

A

A statement that two variables will increase/decrease together (without an explicit specification of cause and effect).

Positive relationships and *negative relationships *are types of hypotheses of association.

83
Q

Causal Hypothesis

A

A statement that the relationship between two concepts is the result of cause and effect.

83
Q

Causal Hypothesis

A

A statement that the relationship between two concepts is the result of cause and effect.

84
Q

Causal Inference

A

The degree of confidence that an observation based on the test of a hypothesis is truly causal.

85
Q

Conceptualization

A

The process of precisely defining ideas and turning them into variables.

86
Q

Operationalization

A

The process of linking the conceptualized variables to a set of procedures for measuring them.

87
Q

Variables

A

Representations that capture the different dimensions, categories, or levels of a concept.

Variables define concepts in a way that allows them to be concretely measured.

88
Q

Abstract

A

A brief description of the content of a scientific report.

89
Q

Annotated Bibliography

A

A list of citations that includes (for each citation) a short description of the content of the text and the reader’s thoughts on the text.

90
Q

Independent Variable

A

The variable on which the values of the dependent variable depend (in a causal hypothesis).

The independent variable is the concept claimed to be the cause.

91
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The variable that is acted upon (in a causal relationship).

The dependent variable is teh outcome we are seeking to understand.

92
Q

Mediating Variable

A

A variable that links the independent variable to the dependent variable.

93
Q

Ethics

A

The moral system that determines whether actions are right or wrong (or good or bad).

94
Q

Belmont Report of 1979

A

The report that forms the foundation of our national system of protection for individuals who take part in medical or social science research.

The Belmont Report was issued by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.

95
Q

Respect

A

The principle that people are to be treated as autonomous agents in research studies and that those with diminished autonomy receive protection.

96
Q

Beneficence

A

The principle referring to the responsibility to do good and to protect subjects from harm in a research study.

97
Q

Justice

A

The principle that research must be conducted in a fair manner, with the potential risks and benefits distributed equally among participants.

98
Q

Informed Consent

A

The freedom to say yes or no to participating in a research study once all possible risks and benefits have been properly explained.

99
Q

Vulnerable Population

A

A group of people who cannot give informed consent (including those who are underage or have diminished mental capacity).

100
Q

Privacy

A

The control over the extent, timing, and circumstances of sharing oneself with others.

101
Q

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A

A committee located at an institution (where research is conducted) that is responsible for reviewing all research involving human subjects, with the goal of protecting the human subjects and preventing ethical violations in the research.

102
Q

Nuremburg Code

A

A set of ethical principles for human subjects research (including the requirement of informed consent) developed in the wake of the Nuremberg Trials following World War II.

IRBs were established by the U.S. National Research Act of 1974 to protect human subjects against ethical violations in research.

103
Q

Risk Versus Benefit Analysis

A

An assessment in which the potential harms to research subjects are weighed against the potential benefits of the research.

104
Q

Human Subjects Research

A

Any study of persons that is a systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.

105
Q

Research Protocol

A

A description (from the researcher) of the intended methods and procedures, target population and recruitment methods, possible risks and benefits of the study, and major research questions.

106
Q

Research Protocol

A

A description (from the researcher) of the intended methods and procedures, target population and recruitment methods, possible risks and benefits of the study, and major research questions.

107
Q

3

A

Social Research Methods (2 decks)

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