exam 1: chap 1-3 Flashcards
study half of 4 in notes
What is the age of initiation in the context of drug use?
The age at which individuals use drugs for the first time.
Why does the distinction “legal” and “illegal” provide a false sense of security when dealing with drugs?
The misconception that legal drugs are less dangerous and less addictive.
What does the term ‘addictive liability’ refer to?
The chance for a substance to be addictive and the level of addictiveness.
Which substances are often associated with a high level of addictive liability?
- Nicotine
- Alcohol
- Caffeine
What is pharmacology?
The scientific study of drugs.
Define psychopharmacology.
The scientific study of the effects of drugs on behavior.
What qualifies as a drug?
A chemical entity or mixture that alters biological function and is not required for health maintenance.
What are psychoactive drugs?
Drugs that affect mood, cognition, and/or behavior.
List some reasons why people use drugs.
- Religious practices
- Alter mood/state
- Stimulation to relieve boredom
- Social interaction
- Self-medicate
- Pleasure
What is the ‘War on Drugs’?
A campaign initiated to combat drug abuse, which some argue has been unsuccessful.
What do most experts agree is the best way to combat drug abuse?
Drug education.
What is the significance of dosage in drug use?
Everything is dose dependent; the amount and speed of administration matter.
What are some research methods mentioned for studying drug effects?
- Case studies
- Naturalistic observation
- Human lab studies
- Surveys
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
Lack of detail and inability to measure just one factor.
What is a disadvantage of human lab studies?
They may not occur in actual settings, missing social factors.
Fill in the blank: The ‘War on Drugs’ started with _______.
Richard Nixon
Are patients entirely truthful in surveys?
Patients may be more truthful but only to a certain extent.
True or False: The ‘War on Drugs’ has been universally accepted as effective.
False - many experts believe it has not worked.
What do genetic predispositions refer to in drug use?
An individual’s genetic makeup that may influence drug effects.
What do surveys provide in terms of information?
Approximations and trends
Surveys are used year after year to track changes over time.
What is crucial for maximizing accuracy in surveys?
Reliability and validity
given sober, objective questions, confidentiality!!
This involves using sober, objective questions and ensuring confidentiality.
Why is confidentiality important in surveys?
When dealing with sensitive or illegal subject questions, need trust from participants for most truthful data
What is the primary focus of general population surveys?
Epidemiological data, usually health-related, from a specific country at a specific time
What is the goal of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health?
Establish overall prevalence of drug use for a variety of substances during certain periods of time (life, year, month)
60,000 people - 12 and up
Define prevalence in the context of drug use.
General occurrence of cases within a population
Define incidence in the context of drug use.
Number of new cases within a population
What is a limitation of The National Survey on Drug Use and Health?
Missing populations such as those without permanent residency, homelessness, military, and incarcerated individuals
(typically have different substance use trends than general pop.)
What does the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) aim to determine?
Which substances are most dangerous and the rate of medical emergencies associated with them
What is the primary method of data collection for DAWN?
Information collected typically within emergency rooms VOLUNTEER
What is the Monitoring the Future study?
A study measuring drug use among 8th graders, 10th graders, and high school seniors
Done by the Univ. of Michigan
500,000 students, over 400+ schools, high stratification across social categories
What is the relationship between perceived risk and drug use?
Inverse relationship - higher perceived risk leads to lower use
What is the cycle of drug use?
Drugs have been used since ancient times and have been a natural part of everyday life
1. substances have some sort of help/benefit
2. cases highlight addictive liability or dangers
3. society deems drug as acceptable or no longer tolerable
What did George Santayana say regarding the past and drug use?
Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it
regarding people willingly self administering drugs
What is fermentation?
A process where yeast acts on sugar in the presence of water, transforming sugar into alcohol - example of early high used in mesopotaimia and in animal kingdom
What societal factors influence drug regulations?
Morality, personal choice, social order, health, and fact (scientific evidence - minor role)
What was the Gin Act of 1751?
The first known national drug law in the world, regulating gin production and sales in England
Made it illegal to distill gin without license and increased taxes on gin
What was the outcome of the Gin Act of 1751?
Decreased number of gin shops in London and overall England
DID NOT INCLUDE WHISKY OR SCOTCH (nobility)
What were the Opium Wars about?
England’s desire to increase access to opium against China’s restrictions –> fight against restrictions!!
** England only used opium in medicial contexts and wanted high degree of profit from selling
What was the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906?
Basis of federal laws regulating food and drugs in the US
regulated interstate commerce in adulterated and misbranded food and drugs and control of supply and distribution of substance within food
What was the original intent of the Harrison Narcotic Act of 1914?
To regulate opium content and trafficking based largely on the Hauge Convention (international agreement)
What did the Shirley Amendment of 1912 address?
Loopholes in labeling and claims made by companies regarding drugs
Established clinical trials and required products for sale in interstate commerce had to go through regulatory approval
What is Substance Use Disorder considered?
Largely considered as a DEVELOPMENTAL disorder
What are some of the issues with drug uses (societal)?
*virtually all drugs of abuse behavioral enforcers
*always a segment of society that uses drugs
*always be a market/supply of drugs
*legal drugs (alc and nic) are more dangerous and relevant than many illegal drugs and aren’t going away
How will legalization effect drug abuse problems?
Increase use/ incidence and open gates for new compounds
What are some ways to classify drugs?
*origin (pure/synthetic/non-synthetic)
*addictive liability and medical use
*mechanism in body
*method of absorption
**effect on mood, thinking, behavior
What does the drug experience rely on?
1) pharmacological effects of the drug (chemical properties, dosage)
2) characteristics of the use (tolerance, expectancies, genetic makeup)
What are the pros and cons of CASE STUDIES?
uses retrospective analysis (actual accounts)
pros: detailed effects, in naturalistic environment, wealth of information, can occur within lab or hospital
cons: cannot base body of info on one study/person, need to integrate data from multiple studies, can lead down wrong path
What are the pros and cons of NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION?
pros: large sample size, greater environmental cues that can be missed in lab
cons: lack of detail, no control group, bias, not one independent factor to measure
What are the pros and cons of HUMAN LAB STUDIES?
pros: subjects can be expansion with no population bias, can have control factors/groups
cons: in lab, not in “actual” setting, miss social factors
What is a SURVEYS?
pros: self reports from clinical and general populations, retrospective, gives general trends and approximations
cons:
Why were Mandrake and Henbane some of the first substances regulated?
Associated with witchcraft and sorcery which had societal fear
How does Hogarth’s Gin lane and Beer street depict alc. use in england?
Gin - Depict sickly, rioting and fighting, coffins, people unable to pay debts, people who have hung themselves, negative
Beer - happy, celebrating arts and music, city blooming, positive
Where was distillation invented and why was it a problem in european populations?
Invented in islamic culture - higher concentration of alc. used in medical contexts
Europe and England - people no longer able to handle their liquor in comparison to lighter concentrations (beer)
What are some characteristics of early drug regulations?
localized/dependent on location, could be non-permanent, did not ban use but sale and creation
What were the results of the opium wars?
First War → resulted Great Britain gained control of the Port of Hong Kong
Second War → Stalemate, China had more control on restrictions and usage law
What was some of the first drugs introduced to America?
Voyages of Columbus made recordings of tabbacco and introduced alc.
What were reasons for change in the 19th century towards drug regulation?
- Development of the hyperthermic needle/syringe **Change in the ability to deliver substances
- Modernization of orgo
**Purifying something from its natural form into a more concentrated active substance - Agents (mixtures, elixirs, etc) being targeted towards women and children to ease ailments associated with motherhood
*** quarter of people addicted to substance due to mass marketing
What was the reason for the grain and whisky taxation following the revolutionary war?
Needed to pay allies back so A.Ham decided to tax and people really did not like - created minor insurgence “Whiskey Rebellion of 1794”
Short lived - repealed by T.Jeff
What are some characteristics of early drug law developments?
Mostly legislation, limited effectiveness (more hard less effective), establishes guidelines
What was the San Francisco Ordinance?
First recorded drug law in us the STUCK
Prohibited opium dens (place where people smoked opium) and based in racism against asian people
What were the outcomes of the Pure Food and Drug Act?
consumers would know amount of each compound in product/increased awareness, bogus cures exposed
What is the Harrison Narcotic Act?
Required that the transport of opium and opium products have registration and licenses
What were some outcomes of the Harrison Narcotics Act?
*Doctor’s prescriptions to ensure opium not free for all and coming from reputable sources
*Expansion of act to cover other drugs and created umbrella term of “narcotics”
*Short lived treatment centers
*turning of opium and morphine addicts to heroin
What and when was Prohibition?
Placed by the 18th amendment (1920), repealed by the 21st amendment (1933)
It prohibited the production, sale, transportation, and importation of alcohol in the USA (not the personal use and production of alcohol)
What unintended consequences came from Prohibition?
*organized crime and speakeasies
*general increase in disrespect towards the law
*shift in alc. consumption (socially –>drink to drink)
*increase in other substance use ESP. MARY JANE lmaooo
What was Jamaican Ginger Extract?
Loophole of prohibition - excluded patent medicines and passed “Teaman” test for adulteration
Deteriorate part of spinal cord and lose connection /paralyze lower body
What were some benefits of prohibition?
*Per Capita Alcohol use decreased
*Rates of Alcohol Liver Cirrhosis decreased along with alcohol use disorders decreased
*Alcohol related accidents and all cause mortality decreased
*Establishment of NASCAR - from bootleggers who were trying to escape the law
How did Hollywood respond to Prohibition?
The The Hays Commission of 1922 and Forerunner to Production Code of 1934
banned any type of law breaking behavior within films (no violence, sex, alcohol consumption)
What did the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act do?
mimicked harrison tax act - regulated marijuana distribution, requiring sellers to obtain a license but not making marijuana illegal to use.
Helped lead to the creation of more regulations in 50s and 60s
ex. 1965: Drug Abuse Control Amendment
Who was Harry Anslinger and what did he do?
He was the head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (est.1930) and used racist tactics to link marijuana use to minorities and jazz music, creating negative connotations around marijuana
Why was there a drug culture increase in the US in the 70s?
**Korean War and Vietnam War
**Cocaine resurgence
**Timothy Leary Ph.D. - performed experiments using hallucogenic drugs (psychadelics)
What was the Controlled Substances Act of 1970?
It categorized drugs into schedules based on their medical use and potential for abuse, allowing flexibility in drug reclassification and provisions.
What were some up regulations after the CSA?
1986 - Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act
*Allowed “designer compounds” to be classified as controlled immediately
1988 - Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act
*Prohibiting chemicals and devices for manufacture (based in methamphetamines)
1996 - Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control
restrictions on the sale of drugs (ex. Can only by limited amounts Seudafed)
2010: Fair Sentencing Act - reduce disparities in Penal system
2012: Synthetic Drug Abuse Prevention Act
Adresses loophole in 1986 act that limits impact to substances for human consumption (labelling)
Banned synthetic compounds (spice and K2) and synthetic stimulants (bath salts)
What is the 2009 Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act?
It gave the FDA the authority to regulate tobacco products, including advertising, product content, and labeling.
**No candy versions of cigarettes
**Banned marketing as light/mild/low tar content
**Stronger labels and larger labels of tobacco products (especially smokeless products) - cover at least 30 percent
**Advertisements could not be in color and not within certain distances of schools and places where children could frequent
**Increased amount of taxes associated with tobacco use
How does the brain consume energy?
The brain uses a large portion of the body’s energy (about 1/5 of base energy) and primarily operates on sugar and sugar derivatives.
What was the primary function of neurons in the nervous system?
Neurons communicate quickly from the brain to the body, playing a crucial role in the transmission of electrical and chemical signals.
What is the function of the glial cells?
Active small cells that support the immune system of the brain - Keep things operating as well as possible
Wrap neurons, provide contact between neurons/conduet
Can the brain produce new cells?
Limited - cells can migrate and integrate into other parts of the brain
What is the function of the Myelin Sheath on neurons?
It insulates the axon, speeds up electrical signal transmission, and helps maintain signal integrity.
Nodes of Ranvier on sheath allows fast conduction
What is the process of electrochemical transmission in neurons?
Action Potential due to environmental stimulus –>
Neurons generate electrical signals in response to stimuli, and once the electrical signal reaches the end of the cell, it releases chemical neurotransmitters
What is the function of the dendrites?
Thin, small, complex branching that receive incoming information from other communicating cells
What is the function of the axon?
Out coming signal for the neuron - Can be singular or branch (intagrate multiple cells)
What is the synapse?
Spaces between neuron -
Can have multiple branches and can attach multiple to one dendrite and strengthen
Why is the space between the synapse and dendrites of another neuron so small?
to prevent diffusion of signal - very concentrated at the sight to actually have effect on target
What are neurotransmitters and who discovered them?
Neurotransmitters are chemical signals released by neurons to communicate with neighboring cells, and they were first identified by Otto Loewi.
What neurotransmitter did Otto Loewi discover?
Discovered the Vagusstuff - acetylcholine through the electrochemical stimulation of frog hearts
Where are Na+, Cl-, and Ca2+ ions most concentrated in the neuron?
Na+, Cl-, and Ca2+ are in the greatest concentration outside of the cell.
Where is K+ most concentrated in the neuron?
K+ is in the greatest concentration inside the neuron
What does most of the energy of the brain go towards maintaining?
primarily used to maintain neurons at their resting charge potential, which involves balancing ions
What is the role of the membrane around neuron?
prevent ion diffusion (equilibrium) - leaky membrane effect can occur
What happens at the axon hillock when enough positive charge reaches it?
depolarization - more positive inside cell
What is the role of the axon hillock?
The axon hillock is the starting point of the axon and holds voltage-sensing channels that initiate the action potential.
What role do receptors play in electrochemical transmission?
Open and close (pores) for ions to flow inside cell at dendrites - Floodgate for Na to rush inside of the cell
What happens at the axon terminal during neurotransmission?
At the axon terminal, calcium ions enter, causing vesicles to release neurotransmitters across the synapse to activate receptors on the next neuron.
What is hyperpolarization?
when the inside of the neuron becomes more negative, inhibits an action potential.
What are the steps of firing action potential?
1) Initial depolarization
2) Threshold value
3) Rapid depolarization
4) Repolorization/
5) hyper-polarization
Refractory period
What are examples of catecholamines?
**Dopamine → involved in motivation, reward, and movement
**Norepinephrine → alertness, mediates emotional arousal, attentiveness , initiation of eating
**Serotonin → involved in mood and sleep
**Histamine → helps to keep you awake (think in terms of antihistamines)
What is the difference between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?
Ionotropic receptors cause direct, rapid opening of ion channels, while metabotropic receptors involve slower, indirect signaling that activates internal second messengers before opening channels.
How do neurotransmitters deactivate?
either destruction/metabolism through enzymes or reuptake by presynaptic terminals or glial cells
What is Dale’s Principle?
suggests that a neuron typically produces only one type of neurotransmitter, though some neurons can produce multiple types and are highly specialized
What role do neurohormones and neuromodulators play?
change what happens with signals, acts like a volume button (changes signal intensity)
What is the role of acetylcholine?
involved in neuron-to-neuron communication and functions in the neuromuscular junction
mimicked by botox, part of cholonergic system
How do you identify what system a neurotransmitter works on?
add the suffix -nergic
ex. domainergic
What are some important amino acids?
- Glutamate (Glutamic acid) → excitatory, help depoloarize post synamtic neurons
- GABA → inhibitory, hyperpolorize neurons/cells
3.Opiod peptides → endorphins
What are the steps of neurotransmitter action?
The steps include synthesis, storage, release, receptor interaction, and inactivation (degradation or reuptake)
What is the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
sympathetic: responds to stress with fight-or-flight reactions (e.g., epinephrine release)
parasympathetic: regulates normal, resting functions like digestion and relaxation
What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) include?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the somatic and autonomic system control?
Somatic - voluntary control (neuromuscular junction)
Autonomic - involuntary muscles, glands, automatic control
What does the acronym SLUDGE stand for?
Salivation, Lacrimation, Urination, Defecation, Gastric Emptying
describes symptoms of substance use in the ER
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
CSF protects the brain by cushioning it, preventing it from slamming into the skull
Function of PONS (brainstem)
necessary to control sleep and wakefulness
sends neurons that go down spinal cord to make sure body stays still when sleeping
Function of MEDULLA OBLONGATA (brainstem)
important for regulating basil (auditory) life functions
and basic functions (heart rate and breathing)
function of CEREBELLUM (brainstem)
fine motor control and balance
Called “the little brain” because also involved in other facets (like speech)
Function of INFERIOR COLLICULI (midbrain)
Help determine the directionality of sound as well as processing
Function of SUPERIOR COLLICULI (midbrain)
functions in localization of stimuli (3d orientation)
Function of SUBSTANTIA NIGRA (midbrain)
“black substance”
Produces melanin and produces dopamine
Function of THALAMUS (forebrain)
relay station for the rest of the brain and receive input and sends it to other parts of brain
Function of HYPOTHALAMUS (forebrain)
critical for motivation related behavior
Involved in regulation of eating, thirst, body temp, aggression, sexual behavior
Basic evolutionary survival points
2nd most important for interpreting complex behavior
Function of LIMBIC SYSTEM (forebrain)
related to feelings, interpretations, and the light (life?)
Function of AMYGDALA (limbic system)
associated with aggression and emotion (Ex. Anxiety)
Gets name from being “almond shaped”
Function of HIPPOCAMPUS (limbic system)
processing, storage, and retrieval of memory
Looks like a rams horn
Function of BASIL GANGLIA (limbic system)
important for motor control (Initiating and stopping movement)
What is the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway?
involves dopamine release, starting in the midbrain’s ventral tegmental area (VTA) and projecting to the nucleus accumbens.
plays a role in reward, motivation, and pleasure.
What is the function of the nigro-striatal pathway?
involved in movement and sends dopamine to the striatum, helping with the modulation and planning of motor actions
What is Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) used for?
used to examine the white matter pathways in the brain, focusing on connectivity and anomalies in larger neural pathways
What does MRI and fMRI measure?
uses magnetic fields to create high-resolution images of the brain’s structure
fMRI tracks brain activity by detecting blood flow changes during tasks
How does a PET scan work?
uses a weak radioisotope in the bloodstream to detect brain activity by measuring oxygen and neurotransmitter distribution
What is a CAT scan used for?
uses X-rays to create detailed images of the brain’s structure and can identify lesions
What is EEG used for?
Electroencephalogram (EEG) is used to monitor real-time neuronal activity and cortical functioning
What is survivorship bias in relation to brain damage?
occurs when only individuals who survive brain damage are studied, potentially skewing conclusions about brain function
What happens when the temporal lobe is damaged?
result in Wernicke’s aphasia (difficulty understanding language) or Broca’s aphasia (difficulty speaking)
What are the four main lobes of the cortex?
Frontal: Executive control, memory, and movement
Parietal: Sensations, speech, and planning
Occipital: Vision processing
Temporal: Auditory processing and speech interpretation
What is a brain pathway?
Integrated well-defined circuits in the brain that communicate with one another
How are neural pathways named?
name of neuro structure where it comes from and to and neurotransmitters
What does Pharmacokinetics (PK) refer to?
to the movement of drugs around the body, focusing on how the body handles a drug compound
What is Pharmacodynamics (PD)?
the power of a given compound and what a drug is doing the body
What does ADME(T) stand for in pharmacokinetics?
- Absorption
- Distribution
- Metabolism
- Elimination/Excretion
- Toxicity
What is dosage?
amount of compound given for the body weight of an organism
ALWAYS have to pay attention to
What factors influence the absorption of a drug?
depends on the nature of the chemical compound and the method of administration (oral, inhalation, skin patches, etc.)
