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A&P 1 > Exam 1 (ch1-3) > Flashcards

Exam 1 (ch1-3) Flashcards

1
Q

How many parts does a medical term have and list them?

A

Three: a prefix, the word root, and a suffix

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2
Q

Define the combining form alg(o), algae, algesi(o)

A

Pain —> example myalgia = pain in a muscle

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3
Q

Define the combining form arth(o)

A

Joint —> example arthritis = inflammation of a joint

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4
Q

Define the combining form bacteri(o)

A

Bacteria —> example bacteriuria = bacteria in the urine

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5
Q

Define the combining form cerebr(o)

A

Cerebrum —> example cerebrovascular = relating to the blood vessels of the brain

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6
Q

Define the combining form cyan(o)

A

Blue —> example cyanosis = blue discoloration of the skin from a lack of oxygen

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7
Q

Define the combining form dermat(o), derm(o)

A

Skin —> example dermatologist = physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the skin

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8
Q

Define the combining form erythr(o)

A

Red —> example erythrocyte = red blood cell

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9
Q

Define the combining form gluc(o)

A

Sugar, glucose —> example glucosuria = sugar in the urine

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10
Q

Define the combining form leuk(o)

A

White —> example leukemia = a white blood cell cancer

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11
Q

Define the combining form melan(o)

A

Black—> example melanocyte = a cell responsible for producing skin pigment

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12
Q

Define the combining form myel(o)

A

Spinal cord —> example myelopathy = disease affecting the spinal cord

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13
Q

Define the combining form pancreat(o)

A

Pancreas —> example pancreatitis = inflammation of the pancreas

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14
Q

Define the combining form poli(o)

A

Gray —> example Poliomyelitis = inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord

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15
Q

What is the word root of a medical term ?

A

It is the foundation of a word that gives it meaning. The word root describes the part of the body or organ involved. Example: cardi = heart, gastr = stomach, neur = nerve.

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16
Q

What is a combining form?

A

When word roots are combined with a vowel at the end (often with “o”) so that a suffix beginning with a consonant can be added.

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17
Q

What are the rules for using combining form vowels?

A
  1. A combining vowel is used when the suffix begins with a consonant. For example, when the word root hem(o), mean-
    ing blood, is combined with the suffix –lysis, meaning destruction, the combining vowel “o” is used because -lysis be-
    gins with a consonant. Hemolysis is a medical term that describes the destruction of red blood cells.
  2. A combining vowel is not used when the suffix already begins with a vowel. For example, when neur(o), meaning
    nerve, is combined with the suffix –itis, meaning inflammation, no combining vowel is used because -itis already be-
    gins with a vowel. Neuritis is a medical term that means an inflammation of a nerve or nerves.
  3. A combining vowel is used when two or more word roots are joined. Gastroenteritis means inflammation of the stom-
    ach and the small intestine. It combines the word roots gastr(o), meaning stomach, and enter(o) meaning small intes-
    tine. A combining vowel is not used after enter(o) because it is joined with the suffix –itis, meaning inflammation, which
    already begins with a vowel.
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18
Q

What is a prefix?

A

A prefix is added to the beginning of the word to influence the meaning of the word root. Prefixes usually indicate the location, time, number, or status.

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19
Q

Define the prefix peri-

A

Around —> example Pericardium = membranous sac around the heart

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20
Q

Define the prefix epi-

A

Above —> example Epigastric = area above the stomach

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21
Q

Define the prefix poly-

A

Many —> example Polyneuritis= inflammation of many nerves

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22
Q

Define the prefix hemi-

A

Half —> example Hemiplegia= paralysis affecting one side of the body only

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23
Q

Define the prefix endo-

A

Inside —> example endocrine = secreting into the inside of the body

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24
Q

Define the prefix exo-

A

Outside —> example exocrine = secreting onto the outside of the body

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25
Q

Define the prefix intra-

A

Inside —> example intracellular = inside a cell

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26
Q

Define the prefix extra-

A

Outside —> example extracellular = outside of a cell

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27
Q

What is important for prefixes to have?

A

To have contrasting or opposing meanings

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28
Q

Define prefix ab- and it’s contrasting prefix ad-

A

Ab: To move away (from) —> example abduct = to move away from the midline of the body

Ad: To move toward —> example adduct = to move toward the midline of the body

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29
Q

Define the prefix dys- and it’s contrasting prefix eu-

A

Dys: Abnormal, difficult—> example dyspnea = difficult or labored breathing

Eu: Normal, good —> example euphoria = a state of well being

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30
Q

Define the prefix hyper- and the contrasting prefix hypo-

A

Hyper: Excessive, above normal —> example hypertension = high blood pressure

Hypo: Below normal—> example hypotension = low pressure

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31
Q

Define the prefix pre- and it’s contrasting prefix post-

A

Pre: Before —> example prenatal = before birth

Post: After —> example postmortem = after death

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32
Q

Define the prefix tachy- and it’s contrasting prefix brady-

A

Tachy: Fast —> example tachycardia = fast heartbeat

Brady: Slow —> example bradycardia = slow heartbeat

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33
Q

What is a suffix?

A

A suffix is added to the end of the word root and usually indicates a procedure, condition, disorder, or disease. A suffix can totally change the meaning of a word root.

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34
Q

Define the suffix -megaly

A

Enlargement —> example cardiomegaly = enlargement of the heart

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35
Q

Define the suffix -algia

A

Pain and suffering —> example gastralgia = pain in the stomach

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36
Q

Define the suffix -itis

A

Inflammation —> example tonsillitis = inflammation of the tonsils

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37
Q

Define the suffix -ectomy

A

Surgical removal of —> example tonsillectomy = surgical removal of the tonsils

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38
Q

A suffix can make a word root two things ?

A

A noun or adjective

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39
Q

Define the suffix noun -um

A

example cranium = part of the skull that encloses the brain

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40
Q

Define the suffix adjective endings -ac and -al

A

example cardiac = relating to the heart

example renal = relating to the kidney

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41
Q

Break apart the word pathology

A

Path(o) is the word root for disease and -ology is the suffix

-ology: the study of

pathology: the study of diseases

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42
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) - algia

A

Pain —> example neuralgia = pain in the nerves

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43
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -centesis

A

Surgical puncture —> example abdominocentesis = surgical puncture of the abdominal cavity to remove fluid

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44
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -ectomy

A

Surgical removal —> example tonsillectomy = surgical removal of the tonsils

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45
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) - itis

A

Inflammation—> example laryngitis = inflammation of the larynx (voice box)

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46
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -lysis

A

Destruction —> example hemolysis = destruction of the red blood cells

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47
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -malacia

A

Softening —> example osteomalacia = softening of the bone

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48
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -megaly

A

Enlargement —> example cardiomegaly = enlargement of the heart

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49
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -necrosis

A

Tissue death —> example arterionecrosis = tissue death of an artery or arteries

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50
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -octomy

A

Cutting or surgical incision —> example phlebotomy = puncture of a vein for the purpose of drawing blood

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51
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -pathy

A

Disease or suffering —> example myopathy= disease of the muscle

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52
Q

Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -ptosis

A

Sagging or dropping —> example blepharoptosis = dropping of the upper eyelid

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53
Q

Define what a “double RRs” is.

A

Some suffixes begin with two letter RRs

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54
Q

Define the double R suffix -rrhage, -rrhagia

A

Bleeding (sudden, severe flow) —> example hemorrhage = sudden, severe loss of blood

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55
Q

Define the double R suffix -rrhaphy

A

Surgical suturing —> example myorrhaphy = surgical suturing of muscle

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56
Q

Define the double R suffix -rrhea

A

Flow (of body fluids) —> example amenorrhea = absence of menstrual flow

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57
Q

Define the double R suffix -rrhexis

A

Rupture —> example myorrhexis = rupture of muscle

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58
Q

Define abbreviation (also called contraction or short form)

A

A shortened form of a word or phase.
Example: Dr. stands for doctor and -epi for epinephrine

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59
Q

Define acronym

A

Is a word formed from the initial letters of other words; it is pronounced as a word.
Example: AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

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60
Q

Name the term that consists of one or more letters and or numbers that represent an object, function, or process.

A

Answer: symbols usually consist of one or more letters and or numbers that represent an object, function, or process.

Example: in chemistry the letter combination “Na” is the symbol for the elements sodium

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61
Q

Define BP (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Blood pressure

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62
Q

Define bpm (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Beats per minute

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63
Q

Define Ca (symbol)

A

Calcium

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64
Q

Define CNS (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Central Nervous system

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65
Q

Define COPD (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

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66
Q

Define CVA (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)

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67
Q

Define ECG, EKG (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

electrocardiogram

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68
Q

Define EEG (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Electrocephalogram

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69
Q

Define GERD (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Gastroesophageal reflux disease

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70
Q

Define GYN (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Gynecologist

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71
Q

Define ICU

A

Intensive Care Unit

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72
Q

Define IM (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Intramuscular

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73
Q

Define IV (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Intravenous

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74
Q

Define KCl (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Potassium chloride

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75
Q

Define kg (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Kilogram

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76
Q

Define L (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Liter

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77
Q

Define mg (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Milligram

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78
Q

Define MI (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Myocardial infarction

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79
Q

Define mL, ml (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Milliliter

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80
Q

Define OTC (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Over the counter

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81
Q

Define PE (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Physical exam

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82
Q

Define URI (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)

A

Upper respiratory infection

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83
Q

Define eponym

A

A term or word based on or derived from a persons name.
Example: Lou Gehrig’s disease was named after an American baseball player who battled the disorder. The Eustachian tube connects the nose and the middle ear.

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84
Q

Define antonym

A

Words opposite in meaning to another.
Example: good and bad, long and short, wide and narrow

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85
Q

Define synonym

A

Words or phrases that have nearly the same or exact meaning as another word or phrase.
Example: shinbone and tibia, thighs bone and femur

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86
Q

Define thesaurus

A

A collection of words, terms, or phrases that have the same (synonyms) or opposite meaning (antonyms)

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87
Q

Define plural forms

A

The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter ‘s’

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88
Q

List the singular and plural form of -a

A

singular: -a —> example: vertebrae
plural: -ae —> example: vertebrae

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89
Q

List the singular and plural form of -is

A

singular: -is —> example: diagnosis
plural: -es —> example: diagnoses

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90
Q

List the singular and plural form of -en

A

singular: -en —> example: lumen
plural: -ina —> example: lumina

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91
Q

List the singular and plural form of -ma

A

singular: -ma —> example: stigma
plural: -mata —> example: stigmata

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92
Q

List the singular and plural form of -on

A

singular: -on —> example: phenomenon
plural: -a —> example: phenomena

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93
Q

List the singular and plural form of -um

A

singular: -um —> example: serum
plural: -a —> example: sera

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94
Q

List the singular and plural form of -ex, -ix, -yx

A

singular: -ex, -ix, -yx —> example: index
plural: -ices —> example: indices

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95
Q

List the singular and plural form of -nx

A

singular: -nx —> example: phalanx
plural: -nges—> example: phalanges

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96
Q

List the singular and plural form of -us*

A

singular: -us* —> example: thrombus
plural: -i —> example: thrombi

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97
Q

List the exceptions to irregular plural forms.

A

Virus (viruses)
Sinus (sinuses)
Plexus (plexuses)

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98
Q

When analyzing an unfamiliar medical term, try to ?

A

Try to identify at least one component you may know
try: osetonecrosis (osteo:bone, necr(o), and -osis) = bone tissue death

try: epididymitis (epididym(o) + -itis) = inflammation of the epididymis

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99
Q

Define ped(o)

A

Relates to foot

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100
Q

Define pedi(a)

A

Relates to children or childhood

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101
Q

Develop a term for the cells that create a dark(black) pigment.

A

Prefix - Melan(o): black
Suffix - cyte: cell
Answer: melanocyte
Plural add a s

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102
Q

Develop a term for feeling incredibly good.

A

Combining form -phoria: mental state/feeling
Prefix - eu-: good
Answer: euphoria means feeling or a state of excitement and happiness

Example dysphoria: feeling of dissatisfaction

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103
Q

Describe standard anatomical position.

A

It describes the body in a standing upright position with the hands turned out so that the palms are facing forward.
Anatomists and clinicians use this standard position to describe the location of organs or body parts to each other.

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104
Q

Describe body plane

A

Body planes are flat surfaces along which the body or a structure is cut for anatomical or pathological study. Any diagonal cut, regardless of the plane it lies in, produces an oblique section.

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105
Q

Describe the body plane: coronal or frontal

A

Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions

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106
Q

Describe the body plane: Transverse or horizontal

A

Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions

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107
Q

Describe the body plane: Sagittal

A

Divides the body into left and right portions

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108
Q

Describe the two types of sagittal plane

A

Mid sagittal and parasagittal

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109
Q

Describe the body plane: Midsagittal

A

Divides the body into equal left and right halves

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110
Q

Describe the body plane: parasagittal

A

Divides the body into unequal left and right halves

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111
Q

Describe regional terms 

A

Designate specific areas for example they are adjectives relating to a defined structure

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112
Q

Describe directional terms

A

Describe the location of a structure in relation to other structures or locations

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113
Q

Describe how to remove uncertainty

A

Directions terms are always based on the standard atomic position
Example: The bladder is located lower than the kidney in a standing person, in other words: the bladder is inferior to the kidney

However, in a patient lying flat on his or her back the kidneys are closer to the ground in the bladder. If we didn’t use the standard atomic composition, we would have to say that the kidneys are inferior to the bladder

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114
Q

Defined the regional term abdominal

A

Relating to the admin

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115
Q

Defined the regional term brachial

A

Relating to the arm

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116
Q

Defined the regional term cervical

A

Relating to the neck or cervix

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117
Q

Define the regional term cranial

A

Relating to the cranium or skull

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118
Q

Define the regional term femoral

A

Relating to the femur

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119
Q

Define the regional term humeral

A

Relating to the upper arm or humerous

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120
Q

Define the regional term lumbar

A

Relating to the loins

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121
Q

Define the regional term malleloar

A

Relating to the ankle/malleolus or ankle region

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122
Q

Define the regional term nasal

A

Relating to the nose

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123
Q

Define the regional term pelvic

A

Relating to the pelvis

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124
Q

Define the regional term radial

A

Relating to the radius

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125
Q

Define the regional term spinal

A

Relating to the spine or spinal cord

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126
Q

Define the regional term thoraic

A

Relating to the thorax or chest region

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127
Q

Define the directional term anterior

A

Closer to the front of the body

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128
Q

Define the directional term contralateral

A

On opposite sides of the body

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129
Q

Define the directional term cranial

A

Toward the head

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130
Q

Define by directional term deep

A

Farther away from the surface of the body

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131
Q

Define play directional term distal

A

Farther away from the body

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132
Q

Define the directional term ipsilateral

A

On the same side of the body

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133
Q

Define directional term lateral

A

Away from the midline of the body

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134
Q

Define the directional term medial

A

Toward the midline of the body

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135
Q

Define directional term posterior

A

Closer to the back of the body

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136
Q

Define the directional term proximal

A

Nearer/closer to the body

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137
Q

Define directional term superficial

A

Close(r) to the surface

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138
Q

Define directional term superior

A

Above or higher

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139
Q

Define the combining form adip(o)

A

Fat or lipid —> example adipose = consisting of fat; fat

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140
Q

Define the combining form aqu(i), aqu(o), aque(o)

A

Water —> example aqueous = of or containing water, like water, watery

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141
Q

Define the combining form bi-

A

Two, twice, double —> example bilayer = a structure consisting of two layers

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142
Q

Define the combining form chem(o)

A

Chemistry; chemical—> example chemical = Relating to chemistry

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143
Q

Define the combining form co-

A

Together or with —> example cotransport = Transport of two or more substances at the same time

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144
Q

Define the combining form cyt(o)

A

Cell —> example cytosol = The watery component of the cytoplasm

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145
Q

Define the combining form di-

A

Two, twice, or double—> example disaccharide = Carbohydrate made up to sugar units

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146
Q

Define the combining form endo-

A

Inside —> example endogenous = Growing or originating from inside the body

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147
Q

Define the combining form ex(o)-

A

Outside —> example exogenous = Originating from outside the body

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148
Q

Define the combining form extra-

A

Outside of, beyond, or in addition to —> example Extracellular = Located outside a cell

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149
Q

Define the combining form gluc(o)

A

Sugar or glucose—> example gluconeogenesis = Glucose formation from non-carbohydrate precursors

150
Q

Define the combining form glyc(o), glycos(o)

A

Sugar or glucose—> example glycogen = Storage form for glucose in animal cells

151
Q

Define the combining form hydra-, hydr(o)-

A

Water or hydrogen —> example hydrate = A substance that contains water

152
Q

Define the combining form inter-

A

Between, among —> example Intercellular = Located or happening between cells

153
Q

Define the combining form intra-

A

Within, into, or during —> example intracellular = located inside a cell

154
Q

Define the combining form lipid(o), lip(o)

A

Fat or lipid —> example lipolysis = The breakdown of fats and other lipids

155
Q

Define the combining form mono-

A

One or single —> example Monosaccharide = Simple carbohydrates made of one sugar unit

156
Q

Define the combining form olig(o)

A

Few —> example Oligosaccharide = carbohydrate made of 3-10 sugar units

157
Q

Define the combining form ox(i)-, ox(o)-, ox(y)-

A

Oxygen —> example oxygenate= Treat or enrich with oxygen

158
Q

Define the combining form poly-

A

Many or much —> example Polypeptide = Protein consisting of up to 50 amino acids

159
Q

Define the combining form prote(o)-

A

Protein —> example proteolysis = The breakdown of proteins or peptides

160
Q

Defined the combining form sacchar(o)-

A

sugar —> example saccharose = Table sugar or sucrose

161
Q

Define the combining form tetra-

A

4 —> example Tetrapeptide = protein consisting of four amino acids

162
Q

Defined the combining form tri-

A

Three —> example Trisaccharide = Carbohydrates made of three sugar units

163
Q

What are the three chemical elements of carbohydrates?

A

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

164
Q

Most carbohydrates contain How many hydrogens and oxygen?

A

They contain two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen for each carbon atom. The basic formula is CnH2nOn.

165
Q

Write the formula for glucose.

A

C6H12O6

166
Q

How do you carbohydrates receive their name?

A

They received your name from the fact that each carbon atoms seems to be connected with one molecule of water

167
Q

What size of carbohydrate molecules taste sweet?

A

Smaller carbohydrate molecules taste sweet also called sugars

168
Q

What is the most basic carbohydrate?

A

The most basic carbohydrates consist of one unit only which are called monosaccharides./simple sugars.

169
Q

What are the 3 main monosaccharides that are important for your body?

A

Glucose (blood sugar), fructose (fruit sugar), galactose

170
Q

Ribose and deoxyribose form what?

A

They form the backbone of RNA(ribose) and DNA (deoxyribose)

171
Q

What are the three most common disacctorides?

A

Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, or saccharose), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).
Sucrose consist of one molecule each of glucose and fructose; Lactose of one molecule each of glucose and galactose; Maltose of two molecules of glucose

172
Q

How are oligosaccharides formed?

A

They are usually formed from 3 to 10 monosaccharides and polysaccharides from many sugar units.

173
Q

What do polysaccharides consist of?

A

They consist of long, linear chains or can be highly branched.
Can be used as storage forms for carbohydrates in plants (starch) And animals (glycogen) as well as structural components such as cellulose in plants and chitin and fungi and animals

174
Q

Describe lipids

A

Lipids are a diverse group of substances that do not dissolve in polar liquids such as water but rather in nonpolar liquids, such as acetone.
Lipids are mainly composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen.

175
Q

List the 4 major lipids

A

Neutral fats/triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and eicosanoids

176
Q

Each triglyceride consist of what?

A

Each triglyceride consist of one molecule of like glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid
They are mainly used for energy storage and to a lesser extent as structural fat.

177
Q

Describe Glycerol

A

It is a molecule with three carbon atoms and three hydroxial groups.
Fatty acids are long carbon chains with carboxyl group at one end

178
Q

What percentage do you triglycerides make up of all the lipids in the human body?

A

They make up approximately 95% of all lipids of the human body

179
Q

Describe how triglycerides can be subdivided into saturated fats.

A

Depending on the fatty acids triglycerides can be subdivided into saturated fats that are found in meat, dairy products, and tropical oils and unsaturated fats from seeds, nuts, olive oil, and most other vegetable oils.



180
Q

What are the two essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by our body and therefore must be ingested with food?

A

linoleic acid and linolenic acid

181
Q

Where are phospholipids derived from?

A
  • triglycerides, they contain to fatty acids only, the third one is replaced by a phosphate group.

This creates a molecule with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. Phospholipids are essential parts of the myelin sheath of nerves and of the lipid bilayer cell membranes

182
Q

Where are eicosanoids derived from?

A
  • from fatty acids.

The group contains prostaglandins which has important functions such as smooth muscle contraction in blood pressure control, thromboxanes and leukotrienes, which help regulate our immune system

183
Q

Where is cholesterol belong to?

A

to the steroids which are four ring to molecules.

It is a substantial part of animal cell membranes and a precursor of steroid hormones for example sex hormones and of bile salts. Cholesterol is found in egg yolk, meat, shellfish and milk products

184
Q

What are the building blocks of proteins?

A

Amino acids

185
Q

Each amino acid contains what?

A

Each amino acid contains one amino group, one carboxyl group, one hydrogen atom, and one side chain attached to the same carbon atom. There are 20 basic types of amino acids with different side chains.

186
Q

Describe a dipeptide

A

Two amino acids bound together by a peptide bond

Tripeptide: 3
Tetrapeptide: 4

187
Q

you’re doing great

A

Sweetie

188
Q

Poly pet tides consist of long chains of what?

A

They consist of long chains of amino acids bounds together by peptide bonds. When the chain contains more than 50 amino acid substances called protein.

189
Q

When a polypeptide chain contains more than 50 amino acids the substance is called what?

A

Protein

190
Q

Describe primary structure of a protein

A

The sequence of amino acids linked together to form a protein

191
Q

Describe the secondary structure of a protein

A

results from folding of the protein chain which is caused by hydrogen bonds between amino acids of the chain.

if these hydrogen bonds are broken the shape of the protein changes and it becomes nonfunctional called denaturation

192
Q

Describe denaturation

A

When hydrogen bonds are broken the shape of a protein changes and becomes nonfunctional

Example: What happens when eggs get fried or boiled

193
Q

Describe the tertiary structure

A

Three-dimensional structure of proteins caused by the folding of the chain

*important for the physical properties of the protein

194
Q

Describe quaternary structure

A

Complex proteins consist of two or more individual protein chains or subunits giving them a quartz Neri structure that is based on the spatial arrangement of the subunits

195
Q

Hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying proteins of the red blood cells, consist of how many protein chains, how many alpha chains, how many beta chains?

A

Consist of four protein chains, two Alpha chains, and two beta chains

196
Q

Describe how proteins are important for functional proteins

A

Proteins are used a structural materials for our body

Ex: as keratin in skin and hair, but play important roles as functional proteins such as enzymes

197
Q

 Which type of lipid is used to create hormones?

A

 Cholesterol

198
Q

The major storage polysaccharide in humans is?

A

Glycogen

199
Q

A carbohydrate that taste sweet is called?

A

Sugar

200
Q

Amino acids are the building blocks of?

A

Protein

201
Q

Describe the cells function

A

They form tissues and organs, capable of undergoing changes to carry out specific functions.

202
Q

List the cell theory’s four concepts.

A
  1. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life
  2. Tissue, Oregon, and organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell functions
  3. The bio chemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific subcellular structures (organelles)
  4. The continuity of life has a cellular basis for example without living cells, there are no living tissues, organs, or organisms
203
Q

Plasma membranes consist of which three components?

A

Proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol

204
Q

Which cell junctions are rivets the anchor cells together?

A

Desmosomes

205
Q

Whip like, Motile cellular extensions that move substances across cell services are called what

A

Cilia

206
Q

In the cell DNA is found in the?

A

Nucleus

207
Q

In which transport process is the energy from hydrolysis of ATP used to drive substances across the membrane against their own concentration gradients?

A

Primary active transport

208
Q

If the solute concentration is a greater in the solution on the inside of the cell compared to the solute concentration of the solution that is outside the cell, then what direction will the water move?

A

Into the cell

209
Q

Which is a transport process by which cells take up extra cellular substances within vessels?

A

Endocytosis

210
Q

In which transport process is the energy stored in an Na+ concentration gradient used to drive other substances across the membrane against her own concentration gradients?

A

Secondary active transport

211
Q

Is leakage always open or closed?

A

Leakage channels are always open

212
Q

Are gated channels always open or closed?

A

Gated channels can be opened and closed

213
Q

Lists the types of channels

A

Chemically gated channels: Channels open with the binding of a specific neural transmitter
voltage gated channels: Open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential
mechanically gated channels: Open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors

214
Q

When gated channels are open, ions diffuse quickly across the membrane along their electrochemical gradients:

A
  • Down a chemical concentration gradient from higher to lower concentration
  • How long electrical gradient toward an opposite electrical charge
  • The ion flow creates an electrical current and voltage changes across the membrane
215
Q

Some K+ continually diffuses down concentration gradient and will move where?

A

It moves out of the cell through K+ leakage channels, making the interior negative compared to the outside

216
Q

Some Na+ diffuses down its concentration gradient into the cell through what?

A

Into the cell through an Na+ leakage channels, offsetting some of the negativity.

217
Q

Describe how the RMP is established

A

It is established at the point where the electrical gradient balances the K+ and Na+ concentration gradients and there is no net flow of ions into or out of the cell. The negative interior Of the cell is due to much greater diffusion of K+ out of the cell than Na+ diffusion into the cell

218
Q

How do you sodium potassium pump stabilize the resting membrane potential?

A

They stabilize the resting membrane potential by maintaining the concentration gradients for Na+ and K+

219
Q

Changes in the membrane potential are used to receive, integrate, and send information. The membrane potential changes when:

A
  1. concentrations of ions across the membrane change
  2. Permeability of the membrane to ions change for example by opening or closing of gated channels
220
Q

Describe depolarization

A

It is defined as a reduction in membrane potential towards zero. The inside of the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential, which increases the probability of producing a nerve impulse

221
Q

Describe hyperpolarization

A

It is defined as an increase in membrane potential away from zero. The inside of a membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential, which reduces the probability of producing a nerve impulse

222
Q

Describe a graded potential

A

It is short-lived, localized change in membrane potential that is used as a short distance signal.
Occurrence: When a stimulus causes gated ion channels to open, leading to depolarization or hyper polarization. Graded potentials decreasing magnitude with distance as ions flow in diffuse through leak channels

223
Q

Describe action potential

A

It is a brief reversal of the membrane potential with a total amplitude of 100mV . It occurs in muscle cells and axons of neurons. Action potentials do not decrease in magnitude over distance. Therefore they are the principal means of long distance neural communication.

224
Q

Describe how action potentials are the principal means of long-distance neurocommunication.


A

1. In the resting state, only leakage channels for an Na+ and K+ are open. All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed.
2. Depolarizing phase: Depolarizing local currents open voltage gated Na+ channels and the increase in a plus influx causing more depolarization. At the threshold, a positive feedback leads to opening of all Na+ channels, leading to a massive influx of Na+ and a reversal of the membrane polarity to +30mV
3. Repolarizing phase: Na+ channels close and the membrane permeability for Na+ declines to resting levels. Slow, voltage sensitive K+ gates open, K+ exits the cell, and internal negativity is restored
4. Hyperpolarization: Some K+ channels remain open, allowing excessive K+ outflow. This causes afterhypolarization of the membrane(undershoot)

225
Q

Anatomy

A

The study of body structure and their reaction

226
Q

Physiology

A

The study of the the body function and it’s parts

227
Q

Principle of complementarity

A

Function always reflects structure

228
Q

How many layers of structural organization is there?

A

6

229
Q

What is the order of the order of complexity?

A

Chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

230
Q

How many organ systems are there?

A

11

231
Q

Describe homeostasis

A

Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

232
Q

Organ structures are made of ____ or more____

A

Organ structures are made of 2 or more tissues

233
Q

Describe the integumentary system

A
  • forms the external body covering (primary barrier prevents anything from getting in)
  • protects deeper tissues from injury
  • synthesizes (produces) vitamin D (important for cell production) and house receptors
234
Q

Why is vitamin D important?

A

Cell production

235
Q

Describe the skeletal system

A
  • protects and supports body organs
  • provides framework for muscles to attach to
  • all formed blood elements (cells) are formed within bones
  • bones store minerals (calcium)
236
Q

Describe muscular system

A
  • allows for manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression
  • maintains posture
  • produces heat
237
Q

Describe nervous system

A
  • as the fast acting control system of the body
  • it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
238
Q

Describe endocrine system

A
  • glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
239
Q

Describe cardiovascular

A
  • heart pumps blood into blood vessels that transport the blood to the organs and tissue and back to the heart
  • blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
240
Q

Describe lymphatic & immune system

A
  • lymphatic system picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood.
  • disposed of debris in the lymphatic stream
  • houses white blood cells involved in immunity
  • immune system protects from invaders from the outside and mounts the attack against foreign substances and changed body structures within the body
241
Q

Describe respiratory system

A
  • keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes CO2
  • the gas exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
242
Q

Describe the digestive system

A
  • takes in food and moves it through the GI tract
  • breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
  • indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
243
Q

Describe the urinary system

A
  • eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
  • regulates the water, electroolyte, and acid base balance of the body
244
Q

Describe the reproductive system

A

function: production of offspring
- testes produce sperm and make sex hormone, the ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
- mammary(breast) glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

245
Q

Describe homeostatic control mechanisms

A

Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones

246
Q

Describe the receptor (components of a control mechanism)

A

Receptor (sensor)
- monitors the environment
- responds to stimuli (changed in controlled variables)

247
Q

Describe the control center (components of a control mechanism)

A
  • determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
  • receives input from receptor
  • determines appropriate response
248
Q

Describe the effector (components of a control mechanism)

A
  • receives output from control center
  • provides the means to respond
  • response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
249
Q

Define negative feedback

A

The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
- the stimulus (too high or too too low body temp) would cause damage to the system if not reduced or removed
Ex: blood sugar is elevated, it secretes a hormone (insulin), you eat a donut which rockets your blood sugar level, insulin will lower it back to 180 (normal)

250
Q

Define positive feedback

A

The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
- usually controls infrequent events that may be life threatening or life saving
Ex: enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Ex: platelet plug formation and blood clotting

251
Q

List the homeostasis imbalance

A
  • increases risk of disease
  • contributes to changes associated with aging
  • may allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over
    Ex: heart failure
252
Q

List the eight necessary life functions

A

Maintaining boundaries, movement (contractility), responsiveness,digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth

253
Q

Define the eight necessary life functions

A

Essential for keeping our body and mind healthy
- if one or more of them can’t be maintained properly, signs and symptoms of disease will develop

254
Q

Define maintaining boundaries

A

Btw internal and external environments
- Achieved by plasma membranes and the skin

255
Q

Define movement (contractility)

A

Of body parts (skeletal muscle) or substances
Ex: blood or food (cardiac and smooth muscle)

256
Q

Define responsiveness

A

Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Ex: withdrawal reflex
Ex: control of our breathing rate

257
Q

Describe digestion

A

Involves the breakdown of ingested foodstuffs and the absorption of simple molecules into blood

258
Q

Describe metabolism

A

Or the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in body cells

259
Q

Describe excretion

A

Or the removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
Ex: urea, CO2, feces

260
Q

Define reproduction

A

As cellular division for growth or repair and the production of offspring

261
Q

Define growth

A

As increase in size of a body part or of an organism

262
Q

List the 5 survival needs

A

Nutrients, water, oxygen, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure

263
Q

Why must the 5 survival needs be met?

A

Or else the body will suffer and may die

264
Q

Describe nutrients

A

Substances in food that promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair
- major nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
- minor nutrients: vitamins and minerals (ex: water)

265
Q

What are two types on solubility?

A
  • water soluble vitamins
    —> B complex and C are absorbed with water
    —> not stored in body
  • fat soluble vitamins
    —> A, D, E, and K are absorbed with lipid digestion products
    —> stored in body, except for K
266
Q

List the 7 minerals

A

Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium

267
Q

Minerals uptake & excretion must be balanced to prevent what?

A

to prevent toxic overload

268
Q

List the carbohydrate dietary sources

A
  • starch in grains and vegetables (ex: complex carbohydrates)
  • sugars in fruits (ex: sugarcane, honey, milk)
  • insoluble fiber: cellulose in veggies; provides roughage
  • soluble fiber: pectin in apples & citrus fruits ; may reduce blood cholesterol levels
269
Q

Abdominal pelvic regions are split into how many regions and list them.

A

- 9 regions
- right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac (inguinal) region, hypogastric region, and left iliac (inguinal)region

270
Q

Plueral cavity contains which organ?

A

Contains the lungs

271
Q

What is a universal solvent?

A

Water

272
Q

What is a mechanism that produces a response to reduce or shut off original stimulus?

A

Negative feedback

273
Q

Define responsiveness

A

Reaction to a change inside or outside the body (stimuli)

274
Q

Which system does the dorsal cavity protect?

A

It protects the nervous system

275
Q

What is considered overweight according to a BMI?

A

25 to 29.9

276
Q

What does the effector receive?

A

It receives output from the control center

277
Q

What describes chemicals for energy and cell building?

A

Nutrients

278
Q

What is the body mass index based off of?

A

Height and weight

279
Q

What is considered underweight according to the BMI?

A

<18.5 (less than)

280
Q

How many necessary life functions are there?

A

Eight

281
Q

What describes the process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body?

A

Excretion

282
Q

What is considered obesity according to the BMI?

A

> 30 (greater than)

283
Q

The thermal receptor receives what?

A

Temperature

284
Q

Define Contractility

A

Movement of body parts

285
Q

What are the fat soluble vitamins?

A

A, D, E, K

286
Q

What is a fast acting control system of the body?

A

Nervous system

287
Q

The receptor receives what?

A

Pain 

288
Q

Describe function of digestion

A

Breaks down food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed and used

289
Q

Describe a normal body temperature

A

98.6 Fahrenheit affects rate and chemical reactions

290
Q

What does the control center determined?

A

Set point at which a variable is maintained

291
Q

Define anatomy

A

The Study of body structure and their relation to one another

292
Q

What are the life 8 functions?

A

Maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth

293
Q

Describe metabolism

A

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

294
Q

What are water soluble vitamins?

A

B and C

295
Q

Describe growth

A

Increase in size

296
Q

mediastinum

A

Contains the pericardial cavity and surrounds the remaining thorac organs

297
Q

What are the seven required minerals?

A

Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium

298
Q

True or false the cardiovascular system provides the oxygen and nutrients

A

False

299
Q

Describe appropriate atmospheric pressure

A

Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs

300
Q

What’s another name for the digestive system?

A

The G.I. track

301
Q

What organs are located in the pelvic cavity?

A

Bladder, reproductive organs, rectum

302
Q

How many organ systems are there?

A

11

303
Q

Describe maintaining boundaries

A

Separation between internal and external environments must exist

304
Q

What is the slow acting control system of the body

A

The endocrine system

305
Q

Describe the ventral cavity

A

Houses the internal organs and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and abdominopelvic

306
Q

Define physiology

A

The study of the body function and its parts

307
Q

What is essential for energy release (ATP production)?

A

Oxygen

308
Q

Define reproduction

A

The ability to generate viable offspring

309
Q

Define positive feedback

A

Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output

310
Q

What is considered normal weight according to BMI?

A

18.5 to 24.9

311
Q

What is BMI?

A

Body mass index

312
Q

List the abdominopelvic regions

A

Right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, and left lower quadrant

313
Q

How many layers of structural organization is there?

A

6

314
Q

What is a receptor?

A

Something that receives a stimulus

315
Q

What are the two types of vitamins?

A

Water soluble and fat soluble

316
Q

What organs are located in the abdominal cavity?

A

Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs

317
Q

How many survival needs are there?

A

5

318
Q

What splits the ventral cavities( thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity)?

A

Diaphragm

319
Q

Describe the principle of complementarity.

A

Function always reflect structure

320
Q

Define the combining form: abdomin(o)- 

A

Abdomen—> example abdominopelvic= Relating to the abdomen and pelvis

321
Q

Define the combining form: crani (o)-

A

Skull (cranium)—> example craniospinal = relating to the cranium and spinal column

322
Q

Define the combining form: dorsi-, dorso-

A

Back (dorsum) —> example dorsal = relating to the back; towards the back

323
Q

Define the combining form: epi-

A

Upon, above, or beside —> example epigastric = located above the stomach

324
Q

Define the combining form: endo(o)-

A

Inside —> example endogenous = growing or originating from inside the body

325
Q

Define the combining form: ex(o)-

A

Outside —> example exogenous = originating from outside the body

326
Q

Define the combining form: extra-

A

Outside of, beyond of, or in addition to —> example extracellular = located outside a cell

327
Q

Define the combining form: gastr(o)-

A

Stomach—> example gastrophrenic = relating to the stomach and diaphragm

328
Q

Define the combining form: hypo-

A

Below, less than normal, or insufficient —> example hypogastric = located below the stomach

329
Q

Define the combining form: intra

A

Within, into, or during —> example intracellular = located inside the cell

330
Q

Define the combining form: spin(o)-

A

Spine, backbone (spinal column)—> example spinal= relating to the spine or the spinal cord

331
Q

Define the combining form: thorac(o)-

A

Thorax, chest —> example thoracic = relating to the chest/thorax or chest region

332
Q

Define the combining form: ventr(o)-

A

Belly —> example ventral = toward or at the front of the body; in front of

333
Q

What are the four subdivisions of anatomy?

A

Surface anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional or topographical anatomy, and developmental anatomy

334
Q

Define cytology

A

The study of cells

335
Q

Define histology

A

Study of tissues

336
Q

Describe the integumentary system

A
  • Forms the external body covering
  • protects deeper tissues from injury
  • synthesizes vitamin D and house receptors as well as sweat and oil glands
337
Q

Describe the skeletal system

A

- Provides and support body organs
- provides a framework for muscles to attach to
- all formed blood elements are formed within bones
—> bones store mineral such as Ca

338
Q

Define the muscular system

A

Allows for a manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, and produces heat

339
Q

Describe the nervous system

A

- fast acting control system of the body,
- responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands

340
Q

Describe the endocrine system

A
  • Consist of hormones secreting glands that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
341
Q

Describe the cardiovascular system

A
  • Consist of a pump and blood vessels,
  • the heart pumps blood into the decsels that transport it to organs and tissues and back to the heart
    -the blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
342
Q

Describe the lymphatic and immune system

A

Lymphatic
- picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood
- disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
- houses white blood cells involved in immunity

Immune
- protects from invaders from the outside and mounts the attack against foreign substances and changed body structures within the body

343
Q

Describe the respiratory system

A
  • Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
  • removes carbon dioxide from the body
  • the gas exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
344
Q

Describe the digestive system

A
  • takes in food and moves it through the G.I. track,
  • breaks it down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
  • indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
345
Q

Describe the urinary system

A
  • eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body and helps regulating the water, electrolyte, and acid base balance of the body
346
Q

What organic compound can’t be synthesized by our body?

A

Vitamins

347
Q

What does BMI not account for?

A

The composition of the body

348
Q

Heat exchange with the ambient environment happens via 4 mechanisms, list them.

A

- Radiation: Loss of heat in the form of infrared rays
- conduction: Transfer of heat by direct contact
- convection: Transfer of heat to the surrounding air
- evaporation: heat loss due to the evaporation of water from body surfaces

349
Q

The hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centers list them.

A

One heat loss Center and one heat promoting center

350
Q

Define hyperthermia

A

Increased body temperature

351
Q

Define hypothermia

A

Body temperature below normal with decreasing vital signs

352
Q

Define acclimatization

A

Long-term adjustments made to cope with less atmospheric pressure

353
Q

Why do athletes like to train in high altitudes before competitions?

A

To gain an increased red cell count that allows them to transport more oxygen than their competitors blood

354
Q

Heat exchange with the ambient environment happens via_______.

A

Evaporation

355
Q

Which BMI range indicates severe obesity according the WHO?

A

35.0 to 39.9

356
Q

Which is a dietary source for cholesterol?

A

Meat

357
Q

The process of cell death caused by poor blood flow is called ________.

A

Infarction

358
Q

What are the two major body cavities?

A

Dorsal cavity and ventral cavity

359
Q

Describe the dorsal cavity

A

At the back of the body

360
Q

What does a dorsal cavity protect?

A

Main parts of the nervous system

361
Q

Describe the ventral cavity

A

At the front of the body

362
Q

What does the cranial cavity protect?

A

The brain lies protected by bones within the cranial cavity

363
Q

What does the spinal cavity protect?

A

The spinal cord is protected by bones and ligaments of the spine that form the spinal cavity

364
Q

What are the main organs in the thoracic cavity?

A

Heart and lungs

365
Q

Define mediastinum

A

The space between pleural cavities

366
Q

The Thoracic cavity subdivided into two pleural cavities house what

A

Lungs

367
Q

What are the three middle regions from top to bottom?

A

Epigastric, umbilical, and hypogastric

368
Q

What is the system that plays the major role in regulating the volume and chemical position of blood, eliminating waste, and regulating fluid and electrolyte balance is?

A

The urinary system
Ex: the tight junction functions so urine doesn’t leak in our body

369
Q

Homeostasis is a condition in which the body maintains what?

A

A relatively stable internal environment within limits

370
Q

If a response enhances the original stimulus, the system is classified as a____ feedback system.

A

Positive feedback system

371
Q

What is called the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body?

A

Metabolism

A&P 1 (2 decks)

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