Exam 1 (ch1-3) Flashcards
How many parts does a medical term have and list them?
Three: a prefix, the word root, and a suffix
Define the combining form alg(o), algae, algesi(o)
Pain —> example myalgia = pain in a muscle
Define the combining form arth(o)
Joint —> example arthritis = inflammation of a joint
Define the combining form bacteri(o)
Bacteria —> example bacteriuria = bacteria in the urine
Define the combining form cerebr(o)
Cerebrum —> example cerebrovascular = relating to the blood vessels of the brain
Define the combining form cyan(o)
Blue —> example cyanosis = blue discoloration of the skin from a lack of oxygen
Define the combining form dermat(o), derm(o)
Skin —> example dermatologist = physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the skin
Define the combining form erythr(o)
Red —> example erythrocyte = red blood cell
Define the combining form gluc(o)
Sugar, glucose —> example glucosuria = sugar in the urine
Define the combining form leuk(o)
White —> example leukemia = a white blood cell cancer
Define the combining form melan(o)
Black—> example melanocyte = a cell responsible for producing skin pigment
Define the combining form myel(o)
Spinal cord —> example myelopathy = disease affecting the spinal cord
Define the combining form pancreat(o)
Pancreas —> example pancreatitis = inflammation of the pancreas
Define the combining form poli(o)
Gray —> example Poliomyelitis = inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord
What is the word root of a medical term ?
It is the foundation of a word that gives it meaning. The word root describes the part of the body or organ involved. Example: cardi = heart, gastr = stomach, neur = nerve.
What is a combining form?
When word roots are combined with a vowel at the end (often with “o”) so that a suffix beginning with a consonant can be added.
What are the rules for using combining form vowels?
- A combining vowel is used when the suffix begins with a consonant. For example, when the word root hem(o), mean-
ing blood, is combined with the suffix –lysis, meaning destruction, the combining vowel “o” is used because -lysis be-
gins with a consonant. Hemolysis is a medical term that describes the destruction of red blood cells. - A combining vowel is not used when the suffix already begins with a vowel. For example, when neur(o), meaning
nerve, is combined with the suffix –itis, meaning inflammation, no combining vowel is used because -itis already be-
gins with a vowel. Neuritis is a medical term that means an inflammation of a nerve or nerves. - A combining vowel is used when two or more word roots are joined. Gastroenteritis means inflammation of the stom-
ach and the small intestine. It combines the word roots gastr(o), meaning stomach, and enter(o) meaning small intes-
tine. A combining vowel is not used after enter(o) because it is joined with the suffix –itis, meaning inflammation, which
already begins with a vowel.
What is a prefix?
A prefix is added to the beginning of the word to influence the meaning of the word root. Prefixes usually indicate the location, time, number, or status.
Define the prefix peri-
Around —> example Pericardium = membranous sac around the heart
Define the prefix epi-
Above —> example Epigastric = area above the stomach
Define the prefix poly-
Many —> example Polyneuritis= inflammation of many nerves
Define the prefix hemi-
Half —> example Hemiplegia= paralysis affecting one side of the body only
Define the prefix endo-
Inside —> example endocrine = secreting into the inside of the body
Define the prefix exo-
Outside —> example exocrine = secreting onto the outside of the body
Define the prefix intra-
Inside —> example intracellular = inside a cell
Define the prefix extra-
Outside —> example extracellular = outside of a cell
What is important for prefixes to have?
To have contrasting or opposing meanings
Define prefix ab- and it’s contrasting prefix ad-
Ab: To move away (from) —> example abduct = to move away from the midline of the body
Ad: To move toward —> example adduct = to move toward the midline of the body
Define the prefix dys- and it’s contrasting prefix eu-
Dys: Abnormal, difficult—> example dyspnea = difficult or labored breathing
Eu: Normal, good —> example euphoria = a state of well being
Define the prefix hyper- and the contrasting prefix hypo-
Hyper: Excessive, above normal —> example hypertension = high blood pressure
Hypo: Below normal—> example hypotension = low pressure
Define the prefix pre- and it’s contrasting prefix post-
Pre: Before —> example prenatal = before birth
Post: After —> example postmortem = after death
Define the prefix tachy- and it’s contrasting prefix brady-
Tachy: Fast —> example tachycardia = fast heartbeat
Brady: Slow —> example bradycardia = slow heartbeat
What is a suffix?
A suffix is added to the end of the word root and usually indicates a procedure, condition, disorder, or disease. A suffix can totally change the meaning of a word root.
Define the suffix -megaly
Enlargement —> example cardiomegaly = enlargement of the heart
Define the suffix -algia
Pain and suffering —> example gastralgia = pain in the stomach
Define the suffix -itis
Inflammation —> example tonsillitis = inflammation of the tonsils
Define the suffix -ectomy
Surgical removal of —> example tonsillectomy = surgical removal of the tonsils
A suffix can make a word root two things ?
A noun or adjective
Define the suffix noun -um
example cranium = part of the skull that encloses the brain
Define the suffix adjective endings -ac and -al
example cardiac = relating to the heart
example renal = relating to the kidney
Break apart the word pathology
Path(o) is the word root for disease and -ology is the suffix
-ology: the study of
pathology: the study of diseases
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) - algia
Pain —> example neuralgia = pain in the nerves
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -centesis
Surgical puncture —> example abdominocentesis = surgical puncture of the abdominal cavity to remove fluid
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -ectomy
Surgical removal —> example tonsillectomy = surgical removal of the tonsils
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) - itis
Inflammation—> example laryngitis = inflammation of the larynx (voice box)
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -lysis
Destruction —> example hemolysis = destruction of the red blood cells
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -malacia
Softening —> example osteomalacia = softening of the bone
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -megaly
Enlargement —> example cardiomegaly = enlargement of the heart
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -necrosis
Tissue death —> example arterionecrosis = tissue death of an artery or arteries
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -octomy
Cutting or surgical incision —> example phlebotomy = puncture of a vein for the purpose of drawing blood
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -pathy
Disease or suffering —> example myopathy= disease of the muscle
Define the suffix (related to disease & procedure) -ptosis
Sagging or dropping —> example blepharoptosis = dropping of the upper eyelid
Define what a “double RRs” is.
Some suffixes begin with two letter RRs
Define the double R suffix -rrhage, -rrhagia
Bleeding (sudden, severe flow) —> example hemorrhage = sudden, severe loss of blood
Define the double R suffix -rrhaphy
Surgical suturing —> example myorrhaphy = surgical suturing of muscle
Define the double R suffix -rrhea
Flow (of body fluids) —> example amenorrhea = absence of menstrual flow
Define the double R suffix -rrhexis
Rupture —> example myorrhexis = rupture of muscle
Define abbreviation (also called contraction or short form)
A shortened form of a word or phase.
Example: Dr. stands for doctor and -epi for epinephrine
Define acronym
Is a word formed from the initial letters of other words; it is pronounced as a word.
Example: AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
Name the term that consists of one or more letters and or numbers that represent an object, function, or process.
Answer: symbols usually consist of one or more letters and or numbers that represent an object, function, or process.
Example: in chemistry the letter combination “Na” is the symbol for the elements sodium
Define BP (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Blood pressure
Define bpm (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Beats per minute
Define Ca (symbol)
Calcium
Define CNS (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Central Nervous system
Define COPD (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Define CVA (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
Define ECG, EKG (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
electrocardiogram
Define EEG (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Electrocephalogram
Define GERD (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Define GYN (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Gynecologist
Define ICU
Intensive Care Unit
Define IM (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Intramuscular
Define IV (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Intravenous
Define KCl (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Potassium chloride
Define kg (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Kilogram
Define L (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Liter
Define mg (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Milligram
Define MI (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Myocardial infarction
Define mL, ml (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Milliliter
Define OTC (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Over the counter
Define PE (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Physical exam
Define URI (acronym/abbreviation/symbol)
Upper respiratory infection
Define eponym
A term or word based on or derived from a persons name.
Example: Lou Gehrig’s disease was named after an American baseball player who battled the disorder. The Eustachian tube connects the nose and the middle ear.
Define antonym
Words opposite in meaning to another.
Example: good and bad, long and short, wide and narrow
Define synonym
Words or phrases that have nearly the same or exact meaning as another word or phrase.
Example: shinbone and tibia, thighs bone and femur
Define thesaurus
A collection of words, terms, or phrases that have the same (synonyms) or opposite meaning (antonyms)
Define plural forms
The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter ‘s’
List the singular and plural form of -a
singular: -a —> example: vertebrae
plural: -ae —> example: vertebrae
List the singular and plural form of -is
singular: -is —> example: diagnosis
plural: -es —> example: diagnoses
List the singular and plural form of -en
singular: -en —> example: lumen
plural: -ina —> example: lumina
List the singular and plural form of -ma
singular: -ma —> example: stigma
plural: -mata —> example: stigmata
List the singular and plural form of -on
singular: -on —> example: phenomenon
plural: -a —> example: phenomena
List the singular and plural form of -um
singular: -um —> example: serum
plural: -a —> example: sera
List the singular and plural form of -ex, -ix, -yx
singular: -ex, -ix, -yx —> example: index
plural: -ices —> example: indices
List the singular and plural form of -nx
singular: -nx —> example: phalanx
plural: -nges—> example: phalanges
List the singular and plural form of -us*
singular: -us* —> example: thrombus
plural: -i —> example: thrombi
List the exceptions to irregular plural forms.
Virus (viruses)
Sinus (sinuses)
Plexus (plexuses)
When analyzing an unfamiliar medical term, try to ?
Try to identify at least one component you may know
try: osetonecrosis (osteo:bone, necr(o), and -osis) = bone tissue death
try: epididymitis (epididym(o) + -itis) = inflammation of the epididymis
Define ped(o)
Relates to foot
Define pedi(a)
Relates to children or childhood
Develop a term for the cells that create a dark(black) pigment.
Prefix - Melan(o): black
Suffix - cyte: cell
Answer: melanocyte
Plural add a s
Develop a term for feeling incredibly good.
Combining form -phoria: mental state/feeling
Prefix - eu-: good
Answer: euphoria means feeling or a state of excitement and happiness
Example dysphoria: feeling of dissatisfaction
Describe standard anatomical position.
It describes the body in a standing upright position with the hands turned out so that the palms are facing forward.
Anatomists and clinicians use this standard position to describe the location of organs or body parts to each other.
Describe body plane
Body planes are flat surfaces along which the body or a structure is cut for anatomical or pathological study. Any diagonal cut, regardless of the plane it lies in, produces an oblique section.
Describe the body plane: coronal or frontal
Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
Describe the body plane: Transverse or horizontal
Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions
Describe the body plane: Sagittal
Divides the body into left and right portions
Describe the two types of sagittal plane
Mid sagittal and parasagittal
Describe the body plane: Midsagittal
Divides the body into equal left and right halves
Describe the body plane: parasagittal
Divides the body into unequal left and right halves
Describe regional terms 
Designate specific areas for example they are adjectives relating to a defined structure
Describe directional terms
Describe the location of a structure in relation to other structures or locations
Describe how to remove uncertainty
Directions terms are always based on the standard atomic position
Example: The bladder is located lower than the kidney in a standing person, in other words: the bladder is inferior to the kidney
However, in a patient lying flat on his or her back the kidneys are closer to the ground in the bladder. If we didn’t use the standard atomic composition, we would have to say that the kidneys are inferior to the bladder
Defined the regional term abdominal
Relating to the admin
Defined the regional term brachial
Relating to the arm
Defined the regional term cervical
Relating to the neck or cervix
Define the regional term cranial
Relating to the cranium or skull
Define the regional term femoral
Relating to the femur
Define the regional term humeral
Relating to the upper arm or humerous
Define the regional term lumbar
Relating to the loins
Define the regional term malleloar
Relating to the ankle/malleolus or ankle region
Define the regional term nasal
Relating to the nose
Define the regional term pelvic
Relating to the pelvis
Define the regional term radial
Relating to the radius
Define the regional term spinal
Relating to the spine or spinal cord
Define the regional term thoraic
Relating to the thorax or chest region
Define the directional term anterior
Closer to the front of the body
Define the directional term contralateral
On opposite sides of the body
Define the directional term cranial
Toward the head
Define by directional term deep
Farther away from the surface of the body
Define play directional term distal
Farther away from the body
Define the directional term ipsilateral
On the same side of the body
Define directional term lateral
Away from the midline of the body
Define the directional term medial
Toward the midline of the body
Define directional term posterior
Closer to the back of the body
Define the directional term proximal
Nearer/closer to the body
Define directional term superficial
Close(r) to the surface
Define directional term superior
Above or higher
Define the combining form adip(o)
Fat or lipid —> example adipose = consisting of fat; fat
Define the combining form aqu(i), aqu(o), aque(o)
Water —> example aqueous = of or containing water, like water, watery
Define the combining form bi-
Two, twice, double —> example bilayer = a structure consisting of two layers
Define the combining form chem(o)
Chemistry; chemical—> example chemical = Relating to chemistry
Define the combining form co-
Together or with —> example cotransport = Transport of two or more substances at the same time
Define the combining form cyt(o)
Cell —> example cytosol = The watery component of the cytoplasm
Define the combining form di-
Two, twice, or double—> example disaccharide = Carbohydrate made up to sugar units
Define the combining form endo-
Inside —> example endogenous = Growing or originating from inside the body
Define the combining form ex(o)-
Outside —> example exogenous = Originating from outside the body
Define the combining form extra-
Outside of, beyond, or in addition to —> example Extracellular = Located outside a cell
Define the combining form gluc(o)
Sugar or glucose—> example gluconeogenesis = Glucose formation from non-carbohydrate precursors
Define the combining form glyc(o), glycos(o)
Sugar or glucose—> example glycogen = Storage form for glucose in animal cells
Define the combining form hydra-, hydr(o)-
Water or hydrogen —> example hydrate = A substance that contains water
Define the combining form inter-
Between, among —> example Intercellular = Located or happening between cells
Define the combining form intra-
Within, into, or during —> example intracellular = located inside a cell
Define the combining form lipid(o), lip(o)
Fat or lipid —> example lipolysis = The breakdown of fats and other lipids
Define the combining form mono-
One or single —> example Monosaccharide = Simple carbohydrates made of one sugar unit
Define the combining form olig(o)
Few —> example Oligosaccharide = carbohydrate made of 3-10 sugar units
Define the combining form ox(i)-, ox(o)-, ox(y)-
Oxygen —> example oxygenate= Treat or enrich with oxygen
Define the combining form poly-
Many or much —> example Polypeptide = Protein consisting of up to 50 amino acids
Define the combining form prote(o)-
Protein —> example proteolysis = The breakdown of proteins or peptides
Defined the combining form sacchar(o)-
sugar —> example saccharose = Table sugar or sucrose
Define the combining form tetra-
4 —> example Tetrapeptide = protein consisting of four amino acids
Defined the combining form tri-
Three —> example Trisaccharide = Carbohydrates made of three sugar units
What are the three chemical elements of carbohydrates?
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Most carbohydrates contain How many hydrogens and oxygen?
They contain two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen for each carbon atom. The basic formula is CnH2nOn.
Write the formula for glucose.
C6H12O6
How do you carbohydrates receive their name?
They received your name from the fact that each carbon atoms seems to be connected with one molecule of water
What size of carbohydrate molecules taste sweet?
Smaller carbohydrate molecules taste sweet also called sugars
What is the most basic carbohydrate?
The most basic carbohydrates consist of one unit only which are called monosaccharides./simple sugars.
What are the 3 main monosaccharides that are important for your body?
Glucose (blood sugar), fructose (fruit sugar), galactose
Ribose and deoxyribose form what?
They form the backbone of RNA(ribose) and DNA (deoxyribose)
What are the three most common disacctorides?
Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, or saccharose), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).
Sucrose consist of one molecule each of glucose and fructose; Lactose of one molecule each of glucose and galactose; Maltose of two molecules of glucose
How are oligosaccharides formed?
They are usually formed from 3 to 10 monosaccharides and polysaccharides from many sugar units.
What do polysaccharides consist of?
They consist of long, linear chains or can be highly branched.
Can be used as storage forms for carbohydrates in plants (starch) And animals (glycogen) as well as structural components such as cellulose in plants and chitin and fungi and animals
Describe lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of substances that do not dissolve in polar liquids such as water but rather in nonpolar liquids, such as acetone.
Lipids are mainly composed of carbon hydrogen and oxygen.
List the 4 major lipids
Neutral fats/triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and eicosanoids
Each triglyceride consist of what?
Each triglyceride consist of one molecule of like glycerol and three molecules of fatty acid
They are mainly used for energy storage and to a lesser extent as structural fat.
Describe Glycerol
It is a molecule with three carbon atoms and three hydroxial groups.
Fatty acids are long carbon chains with carboxyl group at one end
What percentage do you triglycerides make up of all the lipids in the human body?
They make up approximately 95% of all lipids of the human body
Describe how triglycerides can be subdivided into saturated fats.
Depending on the fatty acids triglycerides can be subdivided into saturated fats that are found in meat, dairy products, and tropical oils and unsaturated fats from seeds, nuts, olive oil, and most other vegetable oils.

What are the two essential fatty acids that cannot be synthesized by our body and therefore must be ingested with food?
linoleic acid and linolenic acid
Where are phospholipids derived from?
- triglycerides, they contain to fatty acids only, the third one is replaced by a phosphate group.
This creates a molecule with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. Phospholipids are essential parts of the myelin sheath of nerves and of the lipid bilayer cell membranes
Where are eicosanoids derived from?
- from fatty acids.
The group contains prostaglandins which has important functions such as smooth muscle contraction in blood pressure control, thromboxanes and leukotrienes, which help regulate our immune system
Where is cholesterol belong to?
to the steroids which are four ring to molecules.
It is a substantial part of animal cell membranes and a precursor of steroid hormones for example sex hormones and of bile salts. Cholesterol is found in egg yolk, meat, shellfish and milk products
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Amino acids
Each amino acid contains what?
Each amino acid contains one amino group, one carboxyl group, one hydrogen atom, and one side chain attached to the same carbon atom. There are 20 basic types of amino acids with different side chains.
Describe a dipeptide
Two amino acids bound together by a peptide bond
Tripeptide: 3
Tetrapeptide: 4
you’re doing great
Sweetie
Poly pet tides consist of long chains of what?
They consist of long chains of amino acids bounds together by peptide bonds. When the chain contains more than 50 amino acid substances called protein.
When a polypeptide chain contains more than 50 amino acids the substance is called what?
Protein
Describe primary structure of a protein
The sequence of amino acids linked together to form a protein
Describe the secondary structure of a protein
results from folding of the protein chain which is caused by hydrogen bonds between amino acids of the chain.
if these hydrogen bonds are broken the shape of the protein changes and it becomes nonfunctional called denaturation
Describe denaturation
When hydrogen bonds are broken the shape of a protein changes and becomes nonfunctional
Example: What happens when eggs get fried or boiled
Describe the tertiary structure
Three-dimensional structure of proteins caused by the folding of the chain
*important for the physical properties of the protein
Describe quaternary structure
Complex proteins consist of two or more individual protein chains or subunits giving them a quartz Neri structure that is based on the spatial arrangement of the subunits
Hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying proteins of the red blood cells, consist of how many protein chains, how many alpha chains, how many beta chains?
Consist of four protein chains, two Alpha chains, and two beta chains
Describe how proteins are important for functional proteins
Proteins are used a structural materials for our body
Ex: as keratin in skin and hair, but play important roles as functional proteins such as enzymes
 Which type of lipid is used to create hormones?
 Cholesterol
The major storage polysaccharide in humans is?
Glycogen
A carbohydrate that taste sweet is called?
Sugar
Amino acids are the building blocks of?
Protein
Describe the cells function
They form tissues and organs, capable of undergoing changes to carry out specific functions.
List the cell theory’s four concepts.
- Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life
- Tissue, Oregon, and organismal functions depend on individual and collective cell functions
- The bio chemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific subcellular structures (organelles)
- The continuity of life has a cellular basis for example without living cells, there are no living tissues, organs, or organisms
Plasma membranes consist of which three components?
Proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol
Which cell junctions are rivets the anchor cells together?
Desmosomes
Whip like, Motile cellular extensions that move substances across cell services are called what
Cilia
In the cell DNA is found in the?
Nucleus
In which transport process is the energy from hydrolysis of ATP used to drive substances across the membrane against their own concentration gradients?
Primary active transport
If the solute concentration is a greater in the solution on the inside of the cell compared to the solute concentration of the solution that is outside the cell, then what direction will the water move?
Into the cell
Which is a transport process by which cells take up extra cellular substances within vessels?
Endocytosis
In which transport process is the energy stored in an Na+ concentration gradient used to drive other substances across the membrane against her own concentration gradients?
Secondary active transport
Is leakage always open or closed?
Leakage channels are always open
Are gated channels always open or closed?
Gated channels can be opened and closed
Lists the types of channels
Chemically gated channels: Channels open with the binding of a specific neural transmitter
voltage gated channels: Open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential
mechanically gated channels: Open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors
When gated channels are open, ions diffuse quickly across the membrane along their electrochemical gradients:
- Down a chemical concentration gradient from higher to lower concentration
- How long electrical gradient toward an opposite electrical charge
- The ion flow creates an electrical current and voltage changes across the membrane
Some K+ continually diffuses down concentration gradient and will move where?
It moves out of the cell through K+ leakage channels, making the interior negative compared to the outside
Some Na+ diffuses down its concentration gradient into the cell through what?
Into the cell through an Na+ leakage channels, offsetting some of the negativity.
Describe how the RMP is established
It is established at the point where the electrical gradient balances the K+ and Na+ concentration gradients and there is no net flow of ions into or out of the cell. The negative interior Of the cell is due to much greater diffusion of K+ out of the cell than Na+ diffusion into the cell
How do you sodium potassium pump stabilize the resting membrane potential?
They stabilize the resting membrane potential by maintaining the concentration gradients for Na+ and K+
Changes in the membrane potential are used to receive, integrate, and send information. The membrane potential changes when:
- concentrations of ions across the membrane change
- Permeability of the membrane to ions change for example by opening or closing of gated channels
Describe depolarization
It is defined as a reduction in membrane potential towards zero. The inside of the membrane becomes less negative than the resting potential, which increases the probability of producing a nerve impulse
Describe hyperpolarization
It is defined as an increase in membrane potential away from zero. The inside of a membrane becomes more negative than the resting potential, which reduces the probability of producing a nerve impulse
Describe a graded potential
It is short-lived, localized change in membrane potential that is used as a short distance signal.
Occurrence: When a stimulus causes gated ion channels to open, leading to depolarization or hyper polarization. Graded potentials decreasing magnitude with distance as ions flow in diffuse through leak channels
Describe action potential
It is a brief reversal of the membrane potential with a total amplitude of 100mV . It occurs in muscle cells and axons of neurons. Action potentials do not decrease in magnitude over distance. Therefore they are the principal means of long distance neural communication.
Describe how action potentials are the principal means of long-distance neurocommunication.

1. In the resting state, only leakage channels for an Na+ and K+ are open. All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed.
2. Depolarizing phase: Depolarizing local currents open voltage gated Na+ channels and the increase in a plus influx causing more depolarization. At the threshold, a positive feedback leads to opening of all Na+ channels, leading to a massive influx of Na+ and a reversal of the membrane polarity to +30mV
3. Repolarizing phase: Na+ channels close and the membrane permeability for Na+ declines to resting levels. Slow, voltage sensitive K+ gates open, K+ exits the cell, and internal negativity is restored
4. Hyperpolarization: Some K+ channels remain open, allowing excessive K+ outflow. This causes afterhypolarization of the membrane(undershoot)
Anatomy
The study of body structure and their reaction
Physiology
The study of the the body function and it’s parts
Principle of complementarity
Function always reflects structure
How many layers of structural organization is there?
6
What is the order of the order of complexity?
Chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
How many organ systems are there?
11
Describe homeostasis
Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
Organ structures are made of ____ or more____
Organ structures are made of 2 or more tissues
Describe the integumentary system
- forms the external body covering (primary barrier prevents anything from getting in)
- protects deeper tissues from injury
- synthesizes (produces) vitamin D (important for cell production) and house receptors
Why is vitamin D important?
Cell production
Describe the skeletal system
- protects and supports body organs
- provides framework for muscles to attach to
- all formed blood elements (cells) are formed within bones
- bones store minerals (calcium)
Describe muscular system
- allows for manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression
- maintains posture
- produces heat
Describe nervous system
- as the fast acting control system of the body
- it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
Describe endocrine system
- glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
Describe cardiovascular
- heart pumps blood into blood vessels that transport the blood to the organs and tissue and back to the heart
- blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
Describe lymphatic & immune system
- lymphatic system picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood.
- disposed of debris in the lymphatic stream
- houses white blood cells involved in immunity
- immune system protects from invaders from the outside and mounts the attack against foreign substances and changed body structures within the body
Describe respiratory system
- keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes CO2
- the gas exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
Describe the digestive system
- takes in food and moves it through the GI tract
- breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
- indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
Describe the urinary system
- eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
- regulates the water, electroolyte, and acid base balance of the body
Describe the reproductive system
function: production of offspring
- testes produce sperm and make sex hormone, the ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
- mammary(breast) glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
Describe homeostatic control mechanisms
Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
Describe the receptor (components of a control mechanism)
Receptor (sensor)
- monitors the environment
- responds to stimuli (changed in controlled variables)
Describe the control center (components of a control mechanism)
- determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
- receives input from receptor
- determines appropriate response
Describe the effector (components of a control mechanism)
- receives output from control center
- provides the means to respond
- response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)
Define negative feedback
The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus
- the stimulus (too high or too too low body temp) would cause damage to the system if not reduced or removed
Ex: blood sugar is elevated, it secretes a hormone (insulin), you eat a donut which rockets your blood sugar level, insulin will lower it back to 180 (normal)
Define positive feedback
The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
- usually controls infrequent events that may be life threatening or life saving
Ex: enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
Ex: platelet plug formation and blood clotting
List the homeostasis imbalance
- increases risk of disease
- contributes to changes associated with aging
- may allow destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over
Ex: heart failure
List the eight necessary life functions
Maintaining boundaries, movement (contractility), responsiveness,digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth
Define the eight necessary life functions
Essential for keeping our body and mind healthy
- if one or more of them can’t be maintained properly, signs and symptoms of disease will develop
Define maintaining boundaries
Btw internal and external environments
- Achieved by plasma membranes and the skin
Define movement (contractility)
Of body parts (skeletal muscle) or substances
Ex: blood or food (cardiac and smooth muscle)
Define responsiveness
Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
Ex: withdrawal reflex
Ex: control of our breathing rate
Describe digestion
Involves the breakdown of ingested foodstuffs and the absorption of simple molecules into blood
Describe metabolism
Or the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in body cells
Describe excretion
Or the removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion
Ex: urea, CO2, feces
Define reproduction
As cellular division for growth or repair and the production of offspring
Define growth
As increase in size of a body part or of an organism
List the 5 survival needs
Nutrients, water, oxygen, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure
Why must the 5 survival needs be met?
Or else the body will suffer and may die
Describe nutrients
Substances in food that promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair
- major nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
- minor nutrients: vitamins and minerals (ex: water)
What are two types on solubility?
- water soluble vitamins
—> B complex and C are absorbed with water
—> not stored in body - fat soluble vitamins
—> A, D, E, and K are absorbed with lipid digestion products
—> stored in body, except for K
List the 7 minerals
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, and magnesium
Minerals uptake & excretion must be balanced to prevent what?
to prevent toxic overload
List the carbohydrate dietary sources
- starch in grains and vegetables (ex: complex carbohydrates)
- sugars in fruits (ex: sugarcane, honey, milk)
- insoluble fiber: cellulose in veggies; provides roughage
- soluble fiber: pectin in apples & citrus fruits ; may reduce blood cholesterol levels
Abdominal pelvic regions are split into how many regions and list them.
- 9 regions
- right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region, right iliac (inguinal) region, hypogastric region, and left iliac (inguinal)region
Plueral cavity contains which organ?
Contains the lungs
What is a universal solvent?
Water
What is a mechanism that produces a response to reduce or shut off original stimulus?
Negative feedback
Define responsiveness
Reaction to a change inside or outside the body (stimuli)
Which system does the dorsal cavity protect?
It protects the nervous system
What is considered overweight according to a BMI?
25 to 29.9
What does the effector receive?
It receives output from the control center
What describes chemicals for energy and cell building?
Nutrients
What is the body mass index based off of?
Height and weight
What is considered underweight according to the BMI?
<18.5 (less than)
How many necessary life functions are there?
Eight
What describes the process by which metabolic wastes are eliminated from the body?
Excretion
What is considered obesity according to the BMI?
> 30 (greater than)
The thermal receptor receives what?
Temperature
Define Contractility
Movement of body parts
What are the fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K
What is a fast acting control system of the body?
Nervous system
The receptor receives what?
Pain 
Describe function of digestion
Breaks down food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed and used
Describe a normal body temperature
98.6 Fahrenheit affects rate and chemical reactions
What does the control center determined?
Set point at which a variable is maintained
Define anatomy
The Study of body structure and their relation to one another
What are the life 8 functions?
Maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth
Describe metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism
What are water soluble vitamins?
B and C
Describe growth
Increase in size
mediastinum
Contains the pericardial cavity and surrounds the remaining thorac organs
What are the seven required minerals?
Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium
True or false the cardiovascular system provides the oxygen and nutrients
False
Describe appropriate atmospheric pressure
Specific pressure of air is needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
What’s another name for the digestive system?
The G.I. track
What organs are located in the pelvic cavity?
Bladder, reproductive organs, rectum
How many organ systems are there?
11
Describe maintaining boundaries
Separation between internal and external environments must exist
What is the slow acting control system of the body
The endocrine system
Describe the ventral cavity
Houses the internal organs and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and abdominopelvic
Define physiology
The study of the body function and its parts
What is essential for energy release (ATP production)?
Oxygen
Define reproduction
The ability to generate viable offspring
Define positive feedback
Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output
What is considered normal weight according to BMI?
18.5 to 24.9
What is BMI?
Body mass index
List the abdominopelvic regions
Right upper quadrant, left upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, and left lower quadrant
How many layers of structural organization is there?
6
What is a receptor?
Something that receives a stimulus
What are the two types of vitamins?
Water soluble and fat soluble
What organs are located in the abdominal cavity?
Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
How many survival needs are there?
5
What splits the ventral cavities( thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity)?
Diaphragm
Describe the principle of complementarity.
Function always reflect structure
Define the combining form: abdomin(o)- 
Abdomen—> example abdominopelvic= Relating to the abdomen and pelvis
Define the combining form: crani (o)-
Skull (cranium)—> example craniospinal = relating to the cranium and spinal column
Define the combining form: dorsi-, dorso-
Back (dorsum) —> example dorsal = relating to the back; towards the back
Define the combining form: epi-
Upon, above, or beside —> example epigastric = located above the stomach
Define the combining form: endo(o)-
Inside —> example endogenous = growing or originating from inside the body
Define the combining form: ex(o)-
Outside —> example exogenous = originating from outside the body
Define the combining form: extra-
Outside of, beyond of, or in addition to —> example extracellular = located outside a cell
Define the combining form: gastr(o)-
Stomach—> example gastrophrenic = relating to the stomach and diaphragm
Define the combining form: hypo-
Below, less than normal, or insufficient —> example hypogastric = located below the stomach
Define the combining form: intra
Within, into, or during —> example intracellular = located inside the cell
Define the combining form: spin(o)-
Spine, backbone (spinal column)—> example spinal= relating to the spine or the spinal cord
Define the combining form: thorac(o)-
Thorax, chest —> example thoracic = relating to the chest/thorax or chest region
Define the combining form: ventr(o)-
Belly —> example ventral = toward or at the front of the body; in front of
What are the four subdivisions of anatomy?
Surface anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional or topographical anatomy, and developmental anatomy
Define cytology
The study of cells
Define histology
Study of tissues
Describe the integumentary system
- Forms the external body covering
- protects deeper tissues from injury
- synthesizes vitamin D and house receptors as well as sweat and oil glands
Describe the skeletal system
- Provides and support body organs
- provides a framework for muscles to attach to
- all formed blood elements are formed within bones
—> bones store mineral such as Ca
Define the muscular system
Allows for a manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, and produces heat
Describe the nervous system
- fast acting control system of the body,
- responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
Describe the endocrine system
- Consist of hormones secreting glands that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
Describe the cardiovascular system
- Consist of a pump and blood vessels,
- the heart pumps blood into the decsels that transport it to organs and tissues and back to the heart
-the blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes
Describe the lymphatic and immune system
Lymphatic
- picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood
- disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
- houses white blood cells involved in immunity
Immune
- protects from invaders from the outside and mounts the attack against foreign substances and changed body structures within the body
Describe the respiratory system
- Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen
- removes carbon dioxide from the body
- the gas exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
Describe the digestive system
- takes in food and moves it through the G.I. track,
- breaks it down into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
- indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
Describe the urinary system
- eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body and helps regulating the water, electrolyte, and acid base balance of the body
What organic compound can’t be synthesized by our body?
Vitamins
What does BMI not account for?
The composition of the body
Heat exchange with the ambient environment happens via 4 mechanisms, list them.
- Radiation: Loss of heat in the form of infrared rays
- conduction: Transfer of heat by direct contact
- convection: Transfer of heat to the surrounding air
- evaporation: heat loss due to the evaporation of water from body surfaces
The hypothalamus has two thermoregulatory centers list them.
One heat loss Center and one heat promoting center
Define hyperthermia
Increased body temperature
Define hypothermia
Body temperature below normal with decreasing vital signs
Define acclimatization
Long-term adjustments made to cope with less atmospheric pressure
Why do athletes like to train in high altitudes before competitions?
To gain an increased red cell count that allows them to transport more oxygen than their competitors blood
Heat exchange with the ambient environment happens via_______.
Evaporation
Which BMI range indicates severe obesity according the WHO?
35.0 to 39.9
Which is a dietary source for cholesterol?
Meat
The process of cell death caused by poor blood flow is called ________.
Infarction
What are the two major body cavities?
Dorsal cavity and ventral cavity
Describe the dorsal cavity
At the back of the body
What does a dorsal cavity protect?
Main parts of the nervous system
Describe the ventral cavity
At the front of the body
What does the cranial cavity protect?
The brain lies protected by bones within the cranial cavity
What does the spinal cavity protect?
The spinal cord is protected by bones and ligaments of the spine that form the spinal cavity
What are the main organs in the thoracic cavity?
Heart and lungs
Define mediastinum
The space between pleural cavities
The Thoracic cavity subdivided into two pleural cavities house what
Lungs
What are the three middle regions from top to bottom?
Epigastric, umbilical, and hypogastric
What is the system that plays the major role in regulating the volume and chemical position of blood, eliminating waste, and regulating fluid and electrolyte balance is?
The urinary system
Ex: the tight junction functions so urine doesn’t leak in our body
Homeostasis is a condition in which the body maintains what?
A relatively stable internal environment within limits
If a response enhances the original stimulus, the system is classified as a____ feedback system.
Positive feedback system
What is called the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body?
Metabolism
