Exam 1: Ch. 1-6, 9-10, 24 Flashcards
1
Q
lesion
A
any structural abnormality or pathologic change
2
Q
organic disease
A
disease associated with structural changes in affected tissue or organ
3
Q
gross examination
A
examining tissue with naked eye
4
Q
histologic examination
A
examining tissue with a microscope
5
Q
functional disease
A
disease not associated with any recognizable structural changes in the body
6
Q
pathology
A
study of structural and functional changes in the body caused by disease
7
Q
etiology
A
cause of a disease
8
Q
pathogenesis
A
manner in which a disease develops
9
Q
morphologic abnormality
A
structural abnormality
morphe-structure or shape
10
Q
pathologist
A
physician who specializes in diagnosing and classifying diseases primarily by examining morphology of cells and tissue
11
Q
symptoms
A
way a disease manifests itself in a patient subjectively
e.g. weakness, pain, fatigue
12
Q
signs
A
objective manifestations of a disease detectable by a clinician
e.g. discoloration, vomiting, etc
13
Q
asymptomatic disease
A
one that causes no discomfort or disability in patients
-disease is often asymptomatic in early stages and can progress to symptomatic if not caught
14
Q
etiologic agent
A
agent responsible for causing a disease
15
Q
5 groups of diseases
A
congenital/hereditary inflammatory degenerative metabolic neoplastic
16
Q
congenital/hereditary disease
A
- result of developmental disturbances
ex) hemophilia-hereditary disease in which blood does not clot properly
ex) congenital heart disease
17
Q
inflammatory disease
A
- body reacts to injurious agent by means of inflammation
- many characterized by inflammation (sore throat, pneumonia) are caused by bacteria or other microbiologic agents
- others are manifestation of allergic reaction or hypersensitivity (sinus allergies)
- autoimmune disease
18
Q
degenerative diseases
A
- primary abnormality is degeneration of various parts of body
ex) certain types of arthritis and arteriosclerosis (artery hardening)
19
Q
metabolic diseases
A
- chief abnormality is disturbance in important metabolic process in the body
ex) diabetes, disturbances of endocrine glands, disturbances of fluid and electrolyte balance
20
Q
neoplastic diseases
A
abnormal cell growth that leads to formation of various types of benign and malignant tumors
21
Q
health is more than an absence of disease, it is..?
A
condition in which body and mind function efficiently and harmoniously as integrated unit
22
Q
diagnosis
A
determination of nature and cause of a patient’s illness
based on practitioner’s evaluation of subjective symptoms, physical findings, and results of lab tests
23
Q
prognosis
A
probable outcome of a disease or disorder; outlook for recovery
24
Q
clinical history consists of 5 parts:
A
- history of current illness
- past medical history
- family history
- social history
- review of systems
25
two types of treatment
specific treatment and symptomatic treatment
26
specific treatment
exerts highly specific and favorable effect on basic cause of disease
27
symptomatic treatment
makes patient more comfortable by alleviating symptoms but does not influence course of disease
ex)treating fever, pain, and cough
28
groups suitable for screening
high frequency of disease and tests should target the age group
29
two classifications of diagnostic tests
invasive and noninvasive
30
clinical laboratory tests
determine concentration of various constituents in blood and urine, and concentrations of enzymes in blood
31
disease
any disturbance of the structure or function of the body
32
microbiologic tests
detect presence of disease producing organisms in urine, blood, and feces
33
electrocardiogram
ECG
measures changes in electrical activity of heart during various phases of cardiac cycle
identified abnormal conduction of impulses through the heart
34
electroencephalogram
EEG
| measures electrical activity of the brain
35
electromyogram
EMG
| measures electrical activity of skeletal muscle during contraction and at rest
36
radioisotope (radionuclide) studies
radioisotope is administered and radiation detectors measure the uptake and excretion of the substance
37
endoscopy
examination of interior of the body by means of various types of rigid or flexible tubular instruments
38
esophagoscope
examines interior of esophagus
39
cystoscope
examines interior of bladder
40
sigmoidoscope
examines rectum and sigmoid colon
41
laparoscope
visualizes abdominal and pelvic organs and performs various surgical procedures (cholecystectomy, appendectomy)
42
ultrasound
maps echoes produced by high frequency sound waves transmitted into the body
43
echocardiogram
examination of heart by means of ultrasound procedure
44
roentgenogram
photograph taken with x-rays
45
how do xrays work?
tissues of low density transmit most of the rays and appears black, and tissues of high density absorb rays and appear white
46
contrast medium
dense radiopaque substance that adheres to linings of internal organs making them easier to see on an xray
47
arteriogram/angiogram
xray technique for studying caliber of blood vessels by injection of radiopaque material into the vessel
48
cardiac catheterization
technique to determine blood flow through chambers of the heart and to detect abnormal communications between cardiac chambers
49
computed tomographic scan
CT scan
xray with highly sophisticated xray machine that produces images of the body in cross section by rotating the xray tube around the patient at various levels
50
magnetic resonance imaging
MRI
| produces computer constructed imagines of various organs and tissues like CT scans based on movement of hydrogen atoms
51
advantages of MRI
- detects abnormalities in tissue surrounded by bone
| - sharp contrast between gray and white matter in brain and spine
52
positron emission tomography scans
PET scan
injects biochemical compound labeled with positron-emitting isotope, and assess distribution and metabolism of compound by measuring radiation output of the compound
-major application: detect and measure changes in brain functions associated with disease such as stroke, tumors, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's
53
disadvantages of PET scans
- very expensive
| - not widely available
54
tissue
group of similar cells joined to perform a specific function
55
organs
group of different tissues organized to perform a specific function
56
organ systems
group of organs that function together as a unit, such as various organs of GI tract
57
organelle
small structure in cytoplasm of a cell
58
DNA
nucleic acid present in chromosomes of the nuclei of cells that carries genetic info
59
RNA
nucleic acid in nucleoli of cells. component of messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA
60
mitochondria
rod shaped structures capable of converting food into energy to power cell
POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL
61
adenosine triphosphate ATP
high energy phosphate compound that liberates energy to power numerous cellular metabolic processes
62
endoplasmic reticulum
mass of hollow tubular channels within cytoplasm of cell, frequently bordered by ribosomes
63
ribosome
small cytoplasmic organelle that synthesizes proteins. usually attached to endoplasmic reticulum but may be free in cytoplasm
64
golgi apparatus
group of membrane lined sacs found in cytoplasm near nucleus
65
lysosome
small cytoplasmic vacuole containing digestive enzymes
66
phagocytosis
ingestion of particulate of foreign material by cells
67
peroxisome
cytoplasmic organelle containing various enzymes, including those that decompose toxic hydrogen peroxide
68
centrioles
short cylindrical structures located adjacent to the nucleus that participate in the formation of spindle fibers during cell division
69
cytoskeleton
protein tubules and filaments that form structural framework of cells
70
parenchymal cell
functional cell of organ or tissue
71
parenchyma
functional cells of an organ as contrasted with connective and supporting tissue that forms its framework
72
endothelium
internal lining of blood vessels and interior of the heart
| -simple squamous epithelium
73
mesothelium
layer of flat squamous epithelial cells that covers surfaces of the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities
74
mesoderm
middle germ layer of embryo
| -supporting tissues, muscle, circulatory system, urogenital
75
keratin
insoluble sulfur-containing protein that is the principal constituent of hair and nails
76
exocrine glands
discharges secretions through a duct onto a surface
77
endocrine glands
discharges secretions directly into the bloodstream
78
matrix
material in which connective tissue cells are embedded
79
neuron
nerve cell, including the cell body and its processes
80
neuroglia
supporting cells of tissue of the nervous system
81
astrocyte
large stellate cell having highly branched processes. forms structural framework of nervous system. one of the neuroglial cells
82
oligodendroglia
one type of neuroglia that surrounds nerve fibers within the central nervous system
83
microglia
phagocytic cells of the nervous system comparable to macrophages in other tissues
84
stroma
tissue that forms the framework of an organ
85
trophoblast
cell derived from fertilized ovum that gives rise to fetal membranes and contributes to placenta formation
86
inner cell mass
group of cells that are derived from fertilized ovum and destined to form embryo
87
germ layers
three layers of cells derived from inner cell mass, each destined to form specific organs and tissues in embryo
88
ectoderm
outer germ layer in embryo
| -external covering of body, various organs that are in contact with external environment (eyes, nervous system, ears)
89
entoderm
inner germ layer of embryo
| -internal lining--epithelium of pharynx, respiratory tract, GI tract + organs
90
genetic code
information carried by codons of DNA molecules in chromosomes
91
base
solution containing excess of hydroxyl ions and a pH>7
92
microRNA
small RNA molecules that regulate activity of individual genes
93
osmolarity
measure of osmotic pressure exerted by a solution
94
isotonic solution
solution with same osmolarity as body fluids; cells neither shrink nor swell
95
hypertonic solution
solution with greater osmolarity than body fluids; cells shrink b/c water moves out of cells
96
hypotonic solution
solution with lower osmolarity than body fluids; cells swell b/c water moves into them
97
pinocytosis
liquid absorption by cells in which a segment of cell membrane forms small pockets and engulfs the liquid
98
hypertrophy
enlargement or overgrowth of organ caused by increase in size of its constituent cells
99
hyperplasia
increase in number of cells
100
metaplasia
change from one type of cell to a more resistant type
101
dysplasia
abnormal maturation of cells
102
neoplasia
pathologic process that results in formation and growth of a tumor
103
necrosis
structural changes associated with cell death
104
apoptosis
programmed cell death that occurs after a cell has lived normal life span
105
rough ER
contains ribosomes, synthesizes protein for cells
106
smooth ER
contains enzymes that synthesize lipids and some other compounds
107
4 groups of tissues
epithelium, connective/supporting, muscle, and nerve
108
epithelium
- exterior of the body, line interior body surfaces that communicate with outside (GI tract, urinary tract, vagina, etc)
- forms glands
- makes up functional cells of organs with excretory or secretory functions
- squamous, cuboidal, or columnar
- simple or stratified
109
basement membrane
base layer of epithelial tissues that holds the cells together
110
simple epithelium
- single layer
- lines pulmonary air sacs, vascular system, body cavities
- simple columnar lines GI tract
- pseudostratified lines respiratory tract
111
stratified epithelium
-squamous lines external covering of body, oral cavity, esophagus, vagina
112
keratinization
top layers of squamous cells accumulate keratin that forms a layer that protects the underlying cells
113
transitional epithelium
layer of large superficial cells covering a deeper cuboidal layer
-characteristic of bladder and other parts of urinary tract (allows bladder to stretch
114
functions of Epithelium
protective, absorb, secrete, form glands
115
connective tissue
various types of loose and dense fibrous, elastic, reticular, adipose, and cartilage tissues
-originate from mesoderm
116
3 types of fibers in connective tissue
collagen fibers-long and flexible, don't stretch
elastic fibers-made of elastin, not as strong and stretch readily
reticular fibers-similar to collagen but thin and delicate
117
fibrous tissue
loose fibrous-most widely distributed, forms subcutaneous tissue and fill around organs
dense fibrous-forms ligaments and tendons
118
elastic tissue
forms membranes around blood vessel walls
| walls of trachea and bronchi
119
reticular tissue
fine meshwork of reticulin fibers, form supporting framework of various organs
120
adipose tissue
variety of loose fibrous tissue with large numbers of fat cells
121
cartilage
type of supporting tissue in which cells are dispersed in dense matrix, 3 types of cartilage
122
3 types of cartilage
hyaline-blue and translucent, only a few fine collagen fibers in matrix, ends of bones where they form movable joints, connects ribs to sternum
elastic-yellow elastic fibers in matrix and found in cartilaginous portion of ears
fibrocartilage-many dense collagen bundles in matrix, found where cartilage subjected to weight bearing stress (vertebral discs, some knee cartilages)
123
bone
rigid supporting tissue in which matrix containing the bone forming cells is impregnated with calcium salts
124
muscle tissue
filaments of specialized proteins-actin and myosin
| 3 types of muscle fibers
125
3 types of muscle fibers
smooth muscle-walls of hollow organs and blood vessels, functions automatically
striated muscle-moves skeleton, voluntary control
cardiac muscle-resembles striated, only found in heart
126
nerve tissue
composed of neurons that transmit impulses, and supporting cells called neuroglia
3 types of neuroglial cells
127
3 types of neuroglial cells
astrocytes, oligodendroglia, microglia
128
nucleotide
basic structure of DNA, single phosphate group linked to 5 carbon sugar, deoxyribose, and a base
129
duplication
DNA separates, and each strand is a model for synthesizing a new chain
-forms two double strands
130
mRNA does?
carries the DNA message to ribosomes in cytoplasm, to "tell the cell what to do"
131
tRNA does?
transfers the amino acids to the ribosomes to be assembled in order as specified by mRNA
132
diffusion
movement of dissolved particles (solute) from a more concentrated solution to a more dilute solution
-passive process
133
osmosis
movement of water molecules from dilute solution to concentrated solution
-passive process
134
osmotic pressure/activity
"water attracting" property of a solution, related to concentration of dissolved particles in solution
-higher concentration=higher osmotic pressure
135
active transport
transfer of a substance across cell membrane from low concentration to high concentration
-requires energy, moves against concentration gradien
136
atrophy
reduction in size of cells responding to diminished function, inadequate hormonal stimulation, or reduced blood supply
137
two most common changes with cell injury
cell swelling and fatty change
138
cell swelling
cell cannot transport potassium into the cell and move sodium out, so sodium builds up and causes cell to swell
139
fatty change
cell can't metabolize fat, leading to accumulation of fat in cytoplasm
-common in liver cells
140
homologous chromosomes
matched pair of chromosomes, one derived from each parent
141
autosome
chromosome other than a sex chromosome
142
sex chromosomes
X and Y chromosomes that determine genetic sex
143
genome
total of all the genes contained in a cell's chromosomes
144
gene product
protein or enzyme specified by a gene
145
exon
the part of a chromosomal DNA chain that codes for a specific protein or enzyme
146
intron
noncoding part of a chromosomal DNA chain
147
Human Genome Project
international collaboration of scientists who mapped nucleotide sequence of the entire human genome
148
Barr body
inactivated X chromosome applied to the nuclear membrane in the female
-sex chromatin body
149
mitosis
cell division of most cells in which chromosomes are duplicated in the daughter cells and are identical with those in the parent cell
150
meiosis
special type of cell division in gametes in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by 1/2 in ovum and sperm
151
gametogenesis
development of mature eggs and sperm from precursor cells
152
daughter cell
cell resulting from division of a single (parent) cell
153
growth factor
soluble growth promoting substance that attaches to receptors on the cell membrane of other cells, which activates the receptors and initiates events leading to growth or division of target cells
154
chromatid
one of two newly formed chromosomes held together by centromere
155
centromere
structure that joins each pair of chromatids formed by chromosome duplication
156
synapse
pairing of homologous chromosomes in meiosis
157
crossover
interchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during synapse and meiosis
158
gonad
general term referring to either ovary or testis
159
gametes
reproductive cells, eggs, and sperm, each with 23 chromosomes that unite during fertilization to form a zygote with 46 chromosomes
160
spermatids
germ cells in a late stage of development just before complete maturation into sperm
161
granulosa cells
cells lining ovarian follicles
162
polar body
structure extruded during meiosis of oocyte that contains discarded chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm
163
karyotype
arrangement of chromosomes from a single cell arrangement in pairs in descending order according to size of chromosome and position of centromere
164
locus
position of gene on a chromosome, different forms of same gene are always found at the same locus on a chromosome
165
allele
one of several related genes that may occupy the same locus on a homologous chromosome
166
heterozygous
having two different alleles at given gene loci on homologous pair of chromosomes
167
recessive gene
gene that expresses itself only in homozygous state
168
dominant gene
gene that expresses itself in heterozygous state
169
sex linked gene
gene present on X chromosome
170
hemizygous
term applied to genes on X chromosome in the male
171
major histocompatibility complex
group of genes on chromosome 6 that determine antigens on surface of cells
MHC
172
human leukocyte
unique histocompatibility antigens (self antigens) on the surface of cells. also MHC antigens
173
HLA system
genes of histocompatibility complex and antigens that they determine on the surface of cells
174
haplotype
set of HLA genes on one chromosome that is transmitted as a set
175
rheumatoid arthritis
systemic disease primarily affecting the synovial cavities with major manifestations in small joints
176
autoimmune disease
associated with formation of cell mediated or humoral immunity against subject's own cells or tissue components
177
recombinant DNA technology
methods for combining a gene from one organism such as a gene specifying insulin synthesis, with genes from another organism, such as a bacterium
178
genetic engineering
aka recombinant DNA technology
179
gene splicing
aka recombinant DNA technology
180
plasmid
small, circular DNA molecule separate from the main bacterial chromosome
181
what does miRNA (micro RNA) usually do?
blocks action of mRNA, preventing synthesis of protein (gene product) directed by mRNA which blocks gene function
182
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
minor variations in many nucleotides in genes; affects how gene functions such as why people respond differently to foods and drugs
183
gene profile
analyzing multiple genes in people within specific groups having risk factors for a disease or condition to identify a profile that predicts a favorable response or susceptibility to a condition
184
Lyon hypothesis
female is composed of mixture of two types of cells with respect to the active X chromosome (one of two X chromosomes is inactivated randomly)
185
4 stages of mitosis
1. prophase: chromosomes shorten, centrioles form mitotic spindle and membrane breaks down
2. metaphase: chromosomes center inside cell, mitotic spindles attach to centromeres
3. anaphase: chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite sides of the cell
4. telophase: nuclear membranes of two daughter cells reform, cytoplasm divides
186
first meiotic division
prophase: chromosomes lie side by side (synapse) and exchange genetic material (crossover)
metaphase: chromosomes arranged in plane within middle of cell
anaphase: chromosomes separate and move to opposite sides of cell
telophase: two daughter cells form, each with one chromosome that is not an exact copy of parent cell
187
second meiotic division
two chromatids composing each chromosome separate and two new daughter cells formed from each cell, each with half normal number of chromosomes (total of 4 daughter cells with one chromatid each)
188
germ cells
precursor cells in the testes and ovaries that are capable of developing into mature sperm or ova
189
spermatogenesis
spermatogonia (precursor cells) have 46 chromosomes, divide by mitosis to form primary spermatocytes, that divide by meiosis to form two secondary spermatocytes each with 23 chromosomes. secondary spermatocytes divide again by meiosis to form two spermatids with 23 chromosomes that mature into sperm
----takes two months
190
oogenesis
oogonia (precursor cells) contain 46 chromosomes, and divide repeatedly before birth forming primary oocytes with 46 chromosomes. granulosa cells surround oocytes forming primary follicles, primary oocytes begin prophase of meiosis but many don't complete. ones that do stay inactive until puberty, and ovulation begins with PGH, FSH, and LH, one oocyte discharged, completing first meiotic division forming two unequal daughter cells, the smaller one is discarded, (secondary-half chromosomes and most of cytoplasm, and polar body-half chromosomes and almost no cytoplasm). secondary oocyte begins second meiotic division, forming mature ovum and second polar body
191
two major differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis
1. 4 spermatozoa produced from precursor cell, but only one ovum
2. spermatogenesis occurs continuously and takes two months, but all oocytes were formed before birth and stayed in prolonged prophase of 1st meiotic division until ovulation
192
codominant
both alleles of a pair are expressed
193
gene imprinting
though the mother and father contribute identical genes, the genes may have different effects because they have been modified in the parents during spermatogenesis or oogenesis
194
where else contains genes besides chromosomes?
mitochondria, they have small amounts of DNA that have some of the genes required for synthesis of energy generating proteins
195
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins are important because...
they are a group of genes on chromosome 6 that determine antigens on cells, and these are required to match between organ donor and recipient, and they also take part in generating immune response to foreign antigens
196
recombinant DNA technology/genetic engineering/gene splicing
insertion of a gene that encodes a desired product (such as insulin) into a bacterium (gene inserted into plasmid) or yeast
197
gene therapy
normal gene is inserted into a defective cell lacking an enzyme or structural protein the cell needs to function effectively, and the inserted gene compensates for the missing or dysfunctional gene
198
4 goals for successful application of gene therapy
1. identify and select correct gene
2. choose proper cell to receive gene
3. select efficient means of getting gene into cell
4. ensure new gene can function effectively w/o disrupting other functions
199
exudate
fluid, leukocytes, and debris that accumulate as a result of inflammation
200
adhesions
bands of fibrous tissue that form subsequent to an inflammation and bind adjacent tissues together
201
resolution
regression of an inflammatory process without significant tissue destruction and with return of tissues to normal
202
mast cell
specialized connective tissue cell containing granules filled with histamine and other chemical mediators
203
vasodilator
substance that dilates blood vessels
204
serotonin
vasoconstrictor mediator of inflammation released from platelets
205
prostaglandin
complex derivative of a fatty acid that has widespread physiologic effects
206
leukotriene
prostaglandin-like mediator of inflammation
207
bradykinin
chemical mediator of inflammation derived from components in blood plasma
208
infection
inflammation caused by a disease-producing organism
209
cellulitis
acute spreading inflammation affecting the skin or deeper tissues
210
abscess
localized accumulation of pus in tissues
211
lymphangitis
inflammation of lymph vessels draining a site of infection
212
lymphadenitis
inflammation of lymph nodes draining a site of infection
213
septicemia
infection in which large numbers of pathogenic bacteria are present in the bloodstream
214
virulence
ability of an organism to cause disease
215
inflammatory reaction
nonspecific response to any agent causing cell injury
| -agent can be physical (heat or cold), chemical (acid), or microbiologic (bacterium and virus)
216
local effects of inflammation
- capillary dilation (increase blood flow, warmth, and redness)
- increase capillary permeability (more fluid absorbed into tissues, more swelling)
- leukocytes go to injury site and attach to endothelium of vessels
217
systemic effects of inflammation
elevated fever and leukocytosis (increase WBC in blood)
218
characteristic signs of inflammation
- heat and redness (from dilated vessels)
- swelling (accumulated fluid)
- tenderness and pain (irritated nerve endings)
219
serous exudate
fluid mixture with mostly fluid and little protein
220
purulent exudate
fluid mixture that is largely inflammatory cells (pus)
221
fibrinous exudate
fluid mixture rich in fibrinogen that coagulates and forms fibrin, which forms a sticky film on the surface of inflamed tissue
222
acute inflammatory process
polymorphonuclear leukocyte cell is important, mostly phagocytic
-mononuclear cells clear tissue debris (monocyte, macrophage)
223
severe inflammatory process
- systemic effects evident (fever, feeling ill)
- bone marrow increase production of leukocytes, more in bloodstream
- liver produces acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein
- usually results in tissue damage and scarring
224
mild inflammatory process
self-limiting, subsides with tissue resolution (regression and returning to normal)
225
outcomes of inflammation
depending on amt. of tissue damage:
1. resolution
2. repair
3. areas of destruction replaced with scarring
4. mediators intensify inflammatory process
5. mediators generate more mediators
226
chemical mediators of inflammation
chemical agents that intensify inflammatory process
227
cell-derived mediators
mast cells, histamine, serotonin, prostaglandins, leukotrienes
228
mediators from blood plasma
bradykinin, complement
229
complement
group of blood proteins that act in a regular sequence activated by antigen-antibody reaction
230
lysosomal emzymes
digest protein material and cause most tissue damage when released from leukocytes, from cytoplasm of phagocytic neutrophils and monocytes
231
antigen-antibody reaction
antigen (toxic substance) interacts with antibody (defense) and activate complement, which generates mediators that induce inflammatory reaction. leukocytes are attracted to the site and release lysosomal enzymes
232
harmful effects of inflammation
- tissue injury due to injurious agent and inflammatory reaction itself
- some are persistent, use adrenal corticosteroid hormones to recude tissue damage
233
factors that influence infection outcome
1. virulence of organisms
2. # of invading organisms
3. host resistance
ex) large # of organisms + high virulence + low resistance=easy development
234
chronic infection
state in which pathogenic organism and host are evenly matched
- quiet, smoldering inflammation, and repeated attempts at healing
- lymphocytes, plasma cells, monocytes
235
two defense mechanisms that protect us from disease
inflammatory reaction
| acquired immunity-develops after contact with pathogenic microorganism
236
two types of acquired immunity
humoral immunity and cell mediated immunity
237
humoral immunity
associated w/ production of antibodies
| -main defense against bacteria and bacterial toxins
238
cell-mediated immunity
- formation of population of lymphocytes that attack and destroy foreign material
- main defense against virus, fungi, parasite, and some bacteria
- how the body rejects organ transplants
- eliminates abnormal cells that arise spontaneously during cell division
239
hypersensitivity
increased response, altered reactivity to bacterial products or foreign material, leading to intense inflammatory reaction
-usually has some degree of immunity
240
autoantibodies
antibodies against his/her own cells
- formed during autoimmune disease
- injure or destroy patient's cells/tissue components
241
for immune response to be set in motion, .....
antigen must be displayed on cell membrane
- lymphocytes interact with specific antigen
- B lymphocytes divide and mature into antibody forming plasma cells
- T lymphocytes form diverse population of cells that regulate immune response and generate cell mediated immune reaction to eliminate antigen
- lag phase of about a week before immune response
242
what is lymphocytes' role in immunity?
they respond to the foreign antigen and attack it
243
cytokines
general term for chemical messengers that take part in any function of the immune system
-secreted by lymphocytes, macrophages, and other cells
244
lymphokines
soluble protein chemical messenger secreted by lymphocytes that exert effects on and communicate with other cells
245
monokines
soluble messenger proteins secreted by monocytes
246
interferon
interferes with multiplication of viruses within the cell
247
interleukin
sends regulatory signals between cells of the immune system
248
tumor necrosis factor
destroys foreign or abnormal cells and tumor cells
249
precursor cells for lymphatic system develop into two groups:
1. T-lymphocyte (thymus dependent): precursor cells migrated from marrow to thymus
2. B-lymphocyte (bone marrow): precursor cells stayed in bone marrow
250
natural killer cells
lymphocytes that can destroy target cells without prior antigenic contact
251
T-lymphocytes are what percent of circulating lymphocytes?
2/3
252
B-lymphocytes are what percent of circulating lymphocytes?
1/3
253
natural killer cells are what percent of circulating cells?
10-15% and have neither T or B receptors
254
3 phases of interaction between antigen and antigen-processing cells (lymphocytes)
1. recognition of foreign antigen
2. proliferation of lymphocytes programmed to respond to antigen, forming large group of cells
3. destruction of foreign antigen by lymphocytes programmed to
255
how do major histocompatibility proteins (MHC) play a role in immune response?
- they present the antigen to the responding cells to generate a response
- MHC class 1 are present on nucleated cells
- MHC class 2 are present on B lymphocytes, macrophages, some activated T lymphocytes
256
T lymphocytes response to antigens
can't respond until a macrophage takes the antigen in (phagocytosis), digests it and displays the antigen on its cell membrane combined with its MHC class 2 proteins
257
B lymphocytes response to antigens
immunoglobulin molecules function as receptors that bind antigens, it takes in the antigen and processes it into fragments, and displays fragments on cell membrane with its MHC class 2 proteins
258
regulator T cells
helper T cells that regulate immune system by establishing balance b/w promoting and inhibiting immune response
259
effector T cells
cytotoxic and delayed hypersensitivity T cells that protect the body by attacking and destroying body cells infected
260
what cells are destroyed in AIDS?
T lymphocytes
261
cytotoxic T cells
respond only to antigens complexed with MHC class 1 proteins displayed on host cells
262
delayed hypersensitivity cells
respond only to processed antigens displayed on macrophages or related cells with MHC class 2 proteins
263
immune response genes
- closely associated with HLA complex on chromosome 6
- control immune response by regulating T and B cell proliferation
- influence resistance to infection and tumors
- influence likelihood of autoimmune disease
264
role of complement components in immune response
- functions with immune system to destroy or inactivate all types of foreign antigens (classical-antigen/antibody interactions---or alternative pathway-bacterial cell wall material generated during inflammatory reaction)
- complement components accomplish several functions (mediate inflammation, coat surface of bacteria, and generate an attack complex)
265
immunoglobulins
antibodies (globulins) produced by plasma cells, called this to emphasize role in immunity
- 5 classes (M, G, A, D, and E)
- can only react w/ antigen that induced formation
266
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
smaller, principal antibody in response to most infectious agents
267
Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
large (macroglobulin), very efficient combining with fungi
268
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
found in minute quantities in blood; concentration increases in allergic individuals
269
Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
produced by antibody-forming cells in respiratory and GI mucosa
-combines with harmful antigens, forming antigen/antibody complexes that cannot be absorbed, preventing antigens from inducing sensitization
270
Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
found on cell membrane of B lymphocytes, present in minute quantities in blood
271
4 hypersensitivity reactions
1. anaphylactic (immediate)
2. cytotoxic
3. immune complex
4. delayed/cell mediated hypersensitivity
272
anaphylactic (immediate) hypersensitivity
- IgE fix to mast cells and basophils. contact with sensitizing antigen triggers mediator release, and inflammation
- can be life threatening, immediate treatment needed (epipen, etc)
- localized response: hay fever, food allergy, etc
- systemic response: bee sting, penicillin allergy, etc
273
cytotoxic hypersensitivity reaction
- antibody binds to cell/tissue antigen, activating complement, damages cell and causes inflammation
- ex) blood transfusion reaction, autoimmune hemolytic anemia
274
immune complex disease
circulating antigen/antibody complexes form, activate complement, and cause inflammatory reaction
ex) lupus, rheumatoid arthritis
275
delayed (cell mediated) hypersensitivity
sensitized T cells release lymphokines that attract macrophages and other inflammatory cells
ex) TB, fungus and parasitic infections, contact dermatitis
276
atopic
having genetic predisposition to certain allergic conditions
277
allergen
substance capable of inducing allergic reaction in predisposed individual
278
desensitization
method of inducing diminished response to allergens by inducing formation of specific IgG and IgA antibodies
279
anaphylaxis
severe IgE mediated hypersensitivity reaction that can be life threatening
- from initial exposure to allergen that induces sensitization (penicillin, bee sting, peanuts, latex
- later exposure triggers widespread mediator release from IgE coated mast cells (blood pressure fall, respiratory distress)
280
anaphylactoid reaction
resembles anaphylactic reaction but not caused by IgE and occurs after first contact with a foreign substance, possibly by stimulating mast cells directly or activating complement (aspirin, NSAIDS, some antibiotics)
281
reasons for immune response suppression
- prevent undesirable effects
- may be directed against own cells or tissues
- responsible for rejection of transplanted organs
- may lead to Rh hemolytic disease in newborn infants
282
4 main immunosuppressive agents
1. radiation
2. immunosuppressive drugs that impede cell division & function
3. adrenal corticosteroid hormones-suppress inflammatory reaction
4. immunoglobulin preparations-potent antibodies that prevent body from responding to corresponding antigen
283
pathogenesis
- alteration of own antigens (self antigens) causing them to become antigenic, provoking immune reaction
- formation of cross reacting antibodies against foreign antigens that attack self antigens
- defective regulation of immune response
- -Treatment: corticosteroids, cytotoxic drugs
284
acquired immunity
develops after contact with a pathogenic microorganism
285
systemic lupus erythematosus
systemic manifestations in various organs, autoimmune disease that causes widespread injury to tissues and organs
286
rheumatic fever
inflammation in heart and joints
| -autoimmune disease that has anti-streptococcal antibodies react with antigens
287
glomerulonephritis
autoimmune disease that causes inflammation of renal glomeruli
-antibodies formed against glomerular basement membranes; others caused by antigen/antibody complexes trapped in glomeruli
288
6 types of pathogenic microorganisms
1. bacteria
2. viruses
3. chlamydiae
4. rickettsiae & ehrlichiae
5. mycoplasmas
6. fungi
289
4 ways bacteria are classified
1. shape: spherical (coccus), rod shaped (bacillus), spiral/corkscrew
2. gram-stain reaction: gram positive (purple), gram negative (red)
3. biochemical and cultural characteristics: aerobic and anaerobic, spore formation, flagella, biochemical profile
4. antigenic structure: antigens in cell body, capsule of bacterium, and flagella
290
coccus (spherical)
clusters: staphylococci
chains: streptococci
pairs: diplococci
kidney bean shape, pairs: Neisseriae
291
bacillus (rod shaped)
```
square ends: bacillus anthracis
round ends: myobacterium tuberculosis
club shaped: corynebacteria
fusiform: fusobacteria
comma shaped: vibrio
```
292
spiral organisms
tightly coiled: treponema pallidum
| relaxed coil: borrelia
293
fastidious organisms
can be grown only on enriched media under carefully controlled conditions of temp. and acidity (pH)
294
hardy organisms
can grow on relatively simple culture media under wide variety of conditions
295
aerobic organisms
bacteria that grow best in presence of oxygen
296
anaerobic organisms
bacteria that only grow in the absence of oxygen or under extremely low oxygen tension
297
flagella
hairlike processes covering the surface of some bacteria; responsible for organism's motility
298
spores
dormant, extremely resistant bacterial modification formed under adverse conditions
-can germinate and give rise to actively growing bacteria under favorable conditions
299
staphylococci
- gram positive, arranged in grapelike clusters
- normal inhabitants of skin and nasal cavity
- normally not pathogenic
- cause disease by producing inflammation and toxins (hemolysis, vomiting and diarrhea)
300
staphylococci infections
skin infections
endocarditis (infection of heart and valve linings)
osteomyelitis and arthritis
MRSA is very resistant to antibiotics
301
streptococci classification
-based on type of hemolysis and differences in carbohydrate antigens in cell walls (Groups A, B, and D are most important)
302
beta hemolysis (streptococci classification)
complete lysis of RBC
Group A-pyogenes-pharyngitis
Group B-agalactiae-genital tract of women, neonatal meningitis
Group D-enterococcus faecalis, strep. bovis-urinary, biliary, CV infections
303
non beta hemolysis (streptococcus classification)
alpha hemolysis-incomplete lysis of RBC (streptococcus pneumoniae)
gamma hemolysis-non hemolytic, no lysis
304
streptococci
- gram positive cocci arranged in chains or pairs
| - normal inhabitants of skin, mouth, pharynx, gut, female genital tract
305
streptococci diseases
pyogenic: pharyngitis, cellulitis, endocarditis
toxigenic: scarlet fever, toxic shock syndrome
immunologic: rheumatic fever, glomerulonephritis
306
pneumococci
gram positive cocci, common cause of bacterial pneumonia
307
gram negative cocci
- nonpathogenic members of genus Neisseria
- meningococcus-causes meningitis
- gonococcus-causes gonorrhea
308
gram positive bacilli
corynebacteria(non spore forming), lysteria(non spore forming), bacilli(spore forming, aerobic), clostridia(spore forming, anaerobic)
309
anaerobic spore forming gram positive organisms
clostridia-normal inhabitants of intestinal tracts--produce potent toxins and cause several diseases
- gas gangrene
- tetanus (lockjaw)
- botulism
- intestinal infection
310
spiral organisms
treponema pallidum-causes syphilis
| borrelia burgdorferi-causes lyme disease
311
acid-fast bacteria
```
tubercle bacillus (mycobacterium tuberculosis)-causes TB
mycobacterium leprae-causes leprosy
```
312
reasons for antibiotic resistance
- over prescribing
- inappropriate prescribing
- overuse as feed supplement to livestock
- spread of resistant strains
313
antibiotics: mechanisms of action
1. inhibits synthesis of bacterial cell wall and membrane (penicillin and cephalosporin)
2. inhibits synthesis of microbial proteins
3. inhibits bacterial metabolic functions (folic acid synthesis)
4. inhibits bacterial DNA synthesis
5. competitive inhibition
314
tube dilution test
measures the highest dilution inhibiting growth in a test tube
315
disk method test
inhibition of growth around disk indicated sensitivity to antibiotic
316
adverse effects of antibiotics
1. toxicity
2. hypersensitivity (to drug itself)
3. alteration of bacterial flora (cause overgrowth of resistant bacteria)
4. development of resistant strains (spontaneous mutations, plasmid acquired resistance)
317
chlamydiae
- small, gram negative, nonmotile bacteria
- form inclusion bodies in infected cells (spherical structures in nucleus or cytoplasm)
- growth inhibited by antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis (tetracycline and erythromycin)
318
most common chlamydiae disease
chlamydia
- male: nongonococcal urethritis (inflammation of urethra)
- female: inflammation of uterine cervix, may spread to fallopian tubes
- --can get into infant's eyes-inclusion conjunctivitis
319
more chlamydiae diseases
psitticosis-disease in birds, transmissible to humans by inhalation of dried bird feces (manifests as type of pneumonia)
trachoma-chronic conjunctivitis, blindness
lymphogranuloma venereum-enlargement and inflammation of lymph nodes in groin and rectum (STD)
320
Rickettsiae and Ehrlichiae diseases
- damage to small blood vessels of skin, leakage of blood into tissues
- Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (ticks)
- East Coast, spring and early summer, flu-like
- Rickettsialpox (mites)
- Typhus: flulike, rash
321
Rickettsiae and Ehrlichiae
- parasite of insects transmitted to humans
- transmitted via bite of arthropod vector (ticks, mites, lice) except Q Fever (aerosol)
- respond to some antibiotics
- most are animal born (zoonoses)
322
mycoplasma
- smallest, wall-less, free living bacteria
- cell membrane, no cell wall
- reproduce outside living cells and grow on artificial media
- Primary Atypical Pneumonia: most common in winter
- cough, sore throat, fever, headache
- responds to antibiotics
323
classification of viruses
1. nucleic acid structure: DNA or RNA, outer envelope of lipoprotein
2. size and complexity of genome
3. smaller than cells (20-300 nm)
4. can't be seen under light microscope
324
capsid
protective protein membrane surrounding genetic material
325
nucleoid
genetic material, DNA and RNA, not both
326
characteristics of viruses
- must reproduce or replicate within cells
- lack metabolic enzymes: rely on host metabolic process for survival
- no nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, and lysosomes: can't synthesize proteins or generate energy
- don't multiply by binary fission or mitosis
327
latent viral infection
virus infects a cell without any evidence of cell injury
| -can become activated and cause disease (e.g. herpes zoster)
328
cytopathogenic effect
virus regularly produces cell injury, manifested by necrosis and degeneration of infected cell
329
bodily defenses against viral infections
- formation of interferon: "broad spectrum" antiviral agent
- cell mediated immunity
- humoral defenses
330
treatment of viruses with antiviral agents
- block viral multiplication
- prevent virus from invading cell
- application is limited: toxicity and limited effectiveness
331
fungi
- plantlike organisms without chlorophyll
- two types: yeast and mold
- most are obligate aerobes
- natural habitat--environment (not Candida)
332
growth factors of fungi
high humidity, heat, dark areas with oxygen supply
333
treatment of fungi
antifungal drugs
334
other fungi
bread, cheese, wine, beer production
| -mold: spoilage of foods
335
fungi infections
- superficial fungal infections
- mucous membranes (Candida)
- histoplasmosis
- blastomycosis
336
congenital
present at birth, but can be detected after birth
337
trisomy
presence of extra chromosome in a cell; having 3 of a given chromosome instead of a pair
338
monosomy
one chromosome of a homologous pair is missing in a cell
339
translocation
transfer of a piece of one chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome
340
Turner syndrome
congenital syndrome usually caused by absence of one X chromosome in the female
341
Klinefelter syndrome
congenital syndrome caused by an extra X chromosome in the male. Characterized by testicular atrophy, sterility, feminine body configuration, and subnormal intelligence
342
Down syndrome
congenital syndrome caused by an extra chromosome 21
343
gene mutation
change in structure of a gene, which may alter its functions
344
Sickle hemoglobin
abnormal hemoglobin that crystallizes under reduced oxygen tension
345
multifactorial inheritance
inheritance of a trait or condition related to the combined effect of multiple genes rather than a single gene
346
anencephaly
congenital malformation; absence of brain, cranial vault, and scalp as a result of defective closure of the neural tube
347
spina bifida
incomplete closure of vertebral arches over spinal cord, sometimes associated with protrusion of meninges and neural tissue through the defect (cystic spina bifida)
348
alpha fetoprotein
protein produced by fetal liver early in gestation. sometimes produced by tumor cells. level elevated in amnionic fluid when fetus has neural tube defect
349
tumor
benign or malignant overgrowth of tissues that serves no normal function
350
metastasis
spread of cancer cells from the primary site of origin to a distant site within the body
351
polyp
descriptive term for a benign tumor projecting from an epithelial surface
352
papilloma
descriptive term for a benign tumor projecting from an epithelial surfact
353
carcinoma
malignant tumor derived from epithelial cells
354
sarcoma
malignant tumor arising from connective and supporting tissues
355
lymphoma
neoplasm of lymphoid cells
356
leukemia
neoplastic proliferation of leukocytes
357
Hodgkin's disease
one type of lymphoma
358
Reed-Sternberg cell
characteristic cell of Hodgkin's disease, containing two "mirror image" nuclei with prominent nucleoli
359
keratinocyte
keratin-forming cell in epidermis
360
melanocyte
melanin producing cell in the epidermis
361
melanin
dark pigment found in the skin, in the middle coat of the eye, and in some other regions
362
nevus
benign tumor of pigment producing cells
363
melanoma
malignant tumor of pigment producing cells
364
teratoma
tumor of mixed cell components
365
dermoid cyst
common type of benign cystic teratoma that commonly arises in the ovary
366
Wilms tumor
malignant renal tumor of infants and children
367
actinic keratosis
precancerous warty proliferation of squamous epithelial cells in sun damaged skin of older persons
368
lentigo maligna
precancerous, pigmented skin lesion arising from proliferation of atypical melanin producing epithelial cells (melanocytes)
369
leukoplakia
white patch of hyperplastic and usually atypical squamous epithelium on oral mucosa or genital tract mucosa
370
mutation
alteration in a base sequence in DNA; may alter cell function. transmitted from parents to offspring only if mutation is in gametes
371
proto-oncogene
normal gene that regulates some aspect of cell growth, maturation, or division
372
tumor suppressor gene
gene that suppresses cell proliferation
373
DNA repair genes
genes that monitor and correct errors in DNA replication during cell division
374
oncogene
abnormally functioning gene that causes unrestrained cell growth leading to formation of a tumor. results from mutation or translocation of a proto-oncogene
375
apoptosis
programmed cell death that occurs after a cell has lived its normal life span
376
tyrosine kinase
enzyme that produces multiple effects concerned with cell growth and cell division
377
pap smear
study of cells from various sources, commonly used as a screening test for cancer
378
frozen section
method of rapid diagnosis of tumors used by the pathologist; tissue is frozen solid, cut into thin sections, stained, and examined microscopically
379
tumor-associated antigen
antigen associated with growing tumor cells, which serves as an indicator of tumor growth in the body
380
carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)
tumor associated antigen that resembles the antigen secreted by the cells of the fetal gastrointestinal tract
381
alpha fetoprotein
protein produced by fetal liver early in gestation. sometimes produced by tumor cells. level is elevated in amnionic fluid when fetus has neural tube defect
382
human chorionic gonadotropin (HGC)
hormone made by placenta in pregnancy having actions similar to pituitary gonadotropins. same hormone is made by neoplastic cells in some types of malignant testicular tumors
383
alkylating agent
anticancer drug that disrupts cell function by binding DNA chains together so that they cannot separate
384
antimetabolite
substance that competes with or replaces another substance (metabolite) required for cell growth or multiplication
385
adjuvant chemotherapy
anticancer chemotherapy administered after surgical resection of a tumor in an attempt to destroy any small undetected foci of metastatic tumor before they become clinically detectable
386
immunotherapy
treatment given to retard growth of a disseminated malignant tumor by stimulating to body's own immune defenses
387
interleukin-2
lymphokine that stimulates growth of lymphocytes
388
Myelodysplastic syndrome
disturbance of bone marrow function that is characterized by anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia and that may be a precursor to leukemia in some patients
389
multiple myeloma
malignant neoplasm of plasma cells
390
immunoglobulin
an antibody protein
391
premyeloma
early stage of multiple myeloma in which plasma cell proliferation in the bone marrow is only slightly increased and only minor blood protein abnormalities are present
392
electrolyte
compound that in solution dissociates into positive and negative ions
393
cation
an ion that carries a positive charge
394
anion
an ion carrying a negative charge
395
acidosis
disturbance in the acid-base balance of the body in which body fluids have a lower pH than normal
396
alkalosis
disturbance in acid-base balance in which pH of extracellular fluids is shifted toward the alkaline side of normal
397
uremia
excess of urea and other waste products in the blood, resulting from renal failure
398
ketosis
excess of ketone bodies in the blood resulting from utilization of fat as the primary source of energy
