Exam 1, ch 1-3 Flashcards
3 main branches of bioethics
Normative ethics, metaethics, applied ethics
Definition of morality
beliefs regarding morally right and wrong actions and morally good or bad persons or characters
Definition of Ethics
study of morality using the tools and methods of philosophy
definition of descriptive ethics
Study of morality using science- empirical facts
def. of normative ethics
search for and justification of moral standards or normal (guidelines everyone should follow, treat others how you want to be treated)
def. of metaethics
study of the meaning and justification of basic moral beliefs (what it means for an action to be right or for a person to be good)
def. of applied ethics
using moral norms and concepts to resolve practical moral issues
4 types of moral norms
Normative dominance (overridingness), universality, impartiality, reasonableness
normative dominance and overridingness
normative- moral norms dominate (you should not steal)
Overridinging- you should steal if you can avoid getting caught
universality
moral principles apply in any and all relevant situations
impartiality
everyone considered equal- prohibits discrimination
a moral person is willing to live by the same rules they believe all others ought to follow
reasonablness
logic and commonsense constitute the main work- justified so your opinion isn’t “just because”
obligatory action
would be wrong not to perform it- paying taxes
permissible action
permitted but not required
absolute principle
applies without exceptions
prima facie principle
applies in all cases unless an exception is warranted (duty to be truthful to patients unless telling them the truth could lead to their death
Autonomy
Moral principle
person’s capacity to make their own decisions for themselves
paternalism - weak vs strong
Strong- when you make a decision for someone who is capable of making their own decision
Weak- making a decision for someone who are incapable of making decisions or incapacitated
Nonmaleficence
Above all do no harm
most widely recognized moral principle
beneficence
actively promote the well being of others and prevent no harm to them
utility
we should produce the most favorable balance of good over bad (benefit over harm)
vaccinations- kill 2 but save 400,000
justice
getting what is fair and what is due
retributive justice
if you do something wrong whether you have money or not you are punished the same
distributive justice
fair distribution of societies advantages and disadvantages (equals should be treated equally unless there is a morally good reason not to, such as hiring someone who went to nursing school for a nursing job over someone who didn’t go to school)
moral objectivism
view that there are moral normal or principles that are valid for true for everyone
moral absolutism
objective moral principles allow NO exceptions or must be applied the same way in all cases and cultures
ethical relativism
moral standards not objective but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe
subjective relativism
view that right actions are those sanctioned by a person “that might eb your truth but it’s not my truth”
Cultural relativism
view that right actions are those sanctioned by one’s culture
divine command
right actions are those commanded by God
natural law theory
view that right actions are those that conform to moral standards discerned in nature through human reason
obligated to survive to pass along genes
argument
at least one statement (premise) providing support for another statement (conclusion) - a statement is a claim
deductive argument
an argument intended to give logically CONCLUSIVE support to its conclusion
- all dogs are mammals
- Rex is a dog
- therefore, Rex is a mammal
inductive argument
an argument intended to give PROBABLY support to its conclusion
- 85 % of the students at university are republicans
- Sonia is a student at this university
- Therefore, Sonia is probably a Republican
3 steps in evaluating an argument
- study the text until you thoroughly understand it
- find the conclusion
- identify the premises
Modus Ponens
Affirming the antecedent (p)- valid
- If p, then q (if the surgeon operates, then the patient will be cured)
- p. (the surgeon is operating)
- Therefore, q (therefore, the patient will be cured)
Modus Tollens
denying the consequence (q)- valid
- If p, then q (if the does is low, then the healing is slow)
- Not q (the healing is not slow)
- therefore, not p (therefore, the dose is not low)
Affirming the consequent
- if p, then q (if the patient is getting better, then drugs are unnecessary
- q (drugs are unnecessary)- blanket statement that’s not true
- therefore, p (therefore the patient is getting better)
invalid (consequent is if statement)
denying the antecedent
- if p, then q (if the rate of infection is increasing, then the patient will die)
- Not p (the rate of infection is not increasing)
- therefore, not q (therefore, the patient will not die)
invalid - the patient could still die even though the infection isn’t increasing
straw man fallacy
misrepresentation of a person’s views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed
if someone is okay with guns means you’re okay with people killing each other
appeal to the person fallacy
rejecting of a statement on the grounds it comes from a particular person
reject claims because of a person’s character, background, or circumstance
appeal to ignorance fallacy
prove something by appealing to what we don’t know
A claim is true because it has not been proven false
Claim is false because it has not been proven true
begging the question fallacy
trying to prove a conclusion by using the very same conclusion as support - circular reasoning
The Bible says that God exists
The Bible is true because God wrote it
Therefore, God exists
slippery slope fallacy
arguing erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitable to other actions resulting in the same dire outcome
Germ theory
theory that germs cause disease (5 sec rule)
moral theory
an explanation of why an action is right or wrong or why a person’s character is good or bad
virtue based theory
focus on good and bad persons or character
Consequentialist theory
asserts that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences or results
what/how much good the actions produce, however good is defined
deontological theory
asserts that the rightness of actions is determined partly or entirely by their intrinsic value
utilitarianism
right actions are those that result in the most beneficial balance of good over bad consequences for everyone involved
always takes into account happiness and goodness
happiness, pleasure, satisfaction is the classic view
act-utilitarianism
rightness of actions depends solely on the relative good produced by individual actions
weighing the effects of each possible act
does this particular action maximize happiness
think short term
rule utilitarianism
a right action is one that conforms to a rule that is followed consistently, would create for everyone involved the most beneficial balance of good over bad
rule governing categories of acts
adhere to the rules because they maximize the good even though the act may produce bad effects
think long term
Kant’s categorical imperative
command to do an act on all people regardless of needs, purposes, desires, or interests
do this regardless
applies without exceptions
hypothetical imperative
do something to achieve particular aims
if you want good pay, work hard
respect for persons
kants categorical imperative
act in such a way that you treat humanity never as a means but always at the same time as an end
value humanity for what humanity is
people have ultimate value bc they re the ultimate source of value for other things
element of rationality
performing a bad action to bring a good effect is never morally acceptable but performing a good action may be acceptable even if it produces a bad effect
doctrine of double effect
explain permissibility of an action that causes a serious harm, such as death of a human being, as a side effect of promoting some good end
nature-of-the-act
double effect
action but be either morally good or indifferent
means-end
double effect
bad effect must not be the means by which one achieves the good effect
right-intention
double effect
intention must be the achieving of only the good effect with the bad effect being only an unintended side effect
proportionality
double effect
bad effect must not be disproportionate to the good effect
contractarianism
moral or political theories based on the idea of a social contract or agreement among individuals for mutual advantage
2 principles of justice
equal liberty principle- everyone is entitled to the more freedom possible in exercising basic rights and duties- right to vote, freedom of speech BASIC LIBERTIES
everyone has an equal chance to acquire basic goods
opportunities to obtain benefits must be open to all
virtue ethics
focuses on development of a virtuous character- goal directed
aspire to moral excellence- cultivate virtues that will make us a better person
ethics of care
takes into account emotional elements
casuistry
method of moral reasoning that emphasizes causes and analogy rather than universal principles and theories
in the past we did it this way, looks at case studies to make decisions and doesnt start from them
superior theory
one that fares best when judged by generally accepted yardsticks (scale from like 1-10, how bad or good will it be)
Criterion 1:fruitfulness
theory makes successful predictions of previously unknown phenomena
scientific criteria of adequacy
criterion 2: conservatism
how well a theory fits the established facts with what scientists already know
criterion 1, 2, 3
moral criteria of adequacy
1. consistency with our considered moral judgements
moral commons ense
2. consistency with the fact of the moral life
can’t simply vent feelings- must be consistent with background knowledge
3. resourcefulness in moral problem solving
if this is lacking there is no usefulness or credibly
helps us solve moral problems
