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Pathophysiology > Exam 1- Ch 1, 10 and part of 12 > Flashcards

Exam 1- Ch 1, 10 and part of 12 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Pathophysiology?

A

The study of functional or physiological changes in the body that result from disease processes.

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2
Q

What is a disease?

A

A deviation from the normal structure or function of any part, organ, system, or state of wellness.

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3
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment regardless of external changes.

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4
Q

What are the seven steps to health?

A
  1. Be a non-smoker and avoid second hand smoke.
  2. Eat 5-10 servings of vegetables and fruit a day. Choose high-fiber, lower-fat foods. If you drink alcohol, limit your intake to 1-2 drinks a day.
  3. Be physically active on a regular basis. This will also help you maintain a healthy body weight.
  4. Protect yourself and your family from the sun.
  5. Follow cancer screening guidelines.
  6. Visit your doctor or dentist if you notice any change in your normal state of health.
  7. Follow health and safety instructions at home and at work when using, storing, and disposing of hazardous materials.
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5
Q

Define normal.

A

Average, small range, standard

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6
Q

What varies with normal?

A

Age, health and gender

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7
Q

What is primary prevention?

A

Protect healthy people from developing disease or injury.

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8
Q

What is secondary prevention?

A

Halt or slow disease progression in earliest stages; injury-limiting long term disability or re-injury.

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9
Q

What is tertiary prevention?

A

Preventing further physical deterioration and maximizing quality of life.

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10
Q

How do we get medicines/treatments?

A
  1. Basic science- researchers work to identify a technology that will work to limit or prevent the disease process.
  2. Involves small number of human subjects to determine IF therapy is safe for humans.
  3. ONLY takes place if the results from stage 2 are positive.
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11
Q

What is gross?

A

examination by eye

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12
Q

What is microscopic?

A

cellular level

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13
Q

What is biopsy?

A

excision of very small amounts of living tissue

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14
Q

What is autopsy?

A

examination upon death

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15
Q

What is cell damage and necrosis?

A

ischemia
physical agents (heat, cold, radiation)
mechanical damage (pressure, tearing of tissue)
chemical toxins
microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi)
abnormal metabolites accumulating in cells
nutritional deficits
imbalance of fluids or electrolytes

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16
Q

What is necrosis?

A

death of a group of cells

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17
Q

Cell damage may be what?

A

reversible or irreversible

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18
Q

Cell damage can lead to what?

A

loss of function

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19
Q

What has to do with pharmacology?

A

Integrated medical science involving chemistry, biochemistry, anatomy, physiology, microbiology

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20
Q

What is pharmacology?

A

The study of drugs, their actions, dosage, therapeutic uses and adverse effects

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21
Q

How does pharmacology link to pathophysiology?

A

Medications impact patient care

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22
Q

What is Pharmacodynamics?

A

Drug-induced responses of physiologic and biochemical systems in health and disease

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23
Q

What is pharmacokinetics?

A

Drug amounts at different sites after administration

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24
Q

What is pharmacotherapeutics?

A

Choice and drug application for disease prevention, treatment, or diagnosis

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25
Q

What is toxicology?

A

The study of the body’s response to drugs, their harmful effects, mechanisms of actions, symptoms, treatment, and identification

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26
Q

What is pharmacy?

A

The preparation, compounding, dispensing and record keeping of therapeutic drugs

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27
Q

What is a dose?

A

the amount of drug required to produce the specific desired effect in an adult

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28
Q

How is a dose measured?

A

by weight and time factor

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29
Q

What are the two administration routes?

A

local and systemic

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30
Q

What is a local administration?

A

topical, inhalation, eye drops

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31
Q

What is a systemic administration?

A

transdermal therapeutic systems, orally, sublingual, rectal, inhalation, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous

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32
Q

What are factors that affect blood levels of drugs?

A

Circulation and cardiovascular function
age
body weight and proportion of fatty tissue
activity level/exercise
ability to absorb, metabolize, and excrete drugs (liver and kidney functions)
food and fluid intake
genetic factors
health status or presence of disease (chronic or acute)

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33
Q

The circulatory system consists of what

A

the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems

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34
Q

What four things does blood do?

A
  1. Transports essential oxygen to all tissues along with nutrients required for cell metabolism
  2. provides necessary removal of many cell wastes
  3. plays a critical role in the body’s defenses/immune system
  4. Maintains body homeostasis
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35
Q

What is pulmonary circulation?

A

allows the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs

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36
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

Provides for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between the blood and the cells throughout the body

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37
Q

Arteries go to arterioles and do what?

A

transport blood away from the heart

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38
Q

Veins go to venules and do what?

A

returns blood back to the heart

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39
Q

What do capillaries do?

A

microcirculation within the tissues

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40
Q

What is tunica intima?

A

endothelium (simple squamous epithelium)

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41
Q

What is tunica media?

A

middle layer, mostly smooth muscles

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42
Q

What is tunica adventitia?

A

connective tissue with fibrocytes, collagen, and elastic fibers

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43
Q

What is autoregulation?

A

reflex adjustment in a small area of tissue or an organ, which varies depending on the needs of the cells in the area

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44
Q

What are examples of autoregulation?

A

decrease in pH
increase of CO2
decrease in O2

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45
Q

Autoregulation leads to what?

A

Vasodilation

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46
Q

What is plasma?

A

clear, yellowish fluid remaining after cells are removed

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47
Q

What are plasma proteins?

A

albumin
globulins
fibrinogen

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48
Q

What does albumin do?

A

maintains osmotic pressure

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49
Q

What do globulins have to do with?

A

defenses

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50
Q

What is fibrinogen essential for?

A

formation of blood clots

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51
Q

When fibrinogen is removed what happens?

A

yields serum

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52
Q

What are the cellular components of blood?

A

rbc
wbc
platelets

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53
Q

What is hematocrit?

A

proportion of cells (mostly rbc) in blood

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54
Q

What does hematocrit indicate?

A

viscosity of blood

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55
Q

Hematocrit in males

A

42-52%

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56
Q

hematocrit in women

A

37-47%

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57
Q

What is blood made of?

A

plasma
cellular component
hematocrit

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58
Q

What are the characteristics of rbcs?

A

No nucleus in mature state
biconcave flexible discs
contains hemoglobin
life span of 120 days

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59
Q

Erythropoietin is produced where and stimulates what?

A

kidneys

rbc production

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60
Q

Two types of wbc?

A

granulocytes and agranulocytes

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61
Q

types of granulocytes?

A

neutrophils
basophils
eosinophils

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62
Q

wbc is how much of blood volume?

A

1%

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63
Q

types of agranulocytes?

A

lymphocytes

monocytes

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64
Q

what do neutrophils do?

A

phagocytosis

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65
Q

what do eosinophils do?

A

allergic response

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66
Q

what do basophils do?

A

histamine and inflammatory response

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67
Q

what are lymphocytes for?

A

cell-mediated and humoral immunity

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68
Q

what are monocytes for?

A

macrophages and phagocytosis

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69
Q

Thrombocytes are for?

A

platelets

blood clotting

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70
Q

Are thrombocytes cells

A

no

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71
Q

What are the three steps of blood clotting?

A

vasoconstriction or vascular spasm after injury
platelet plug
coagulation mechanisms

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72
Q

What are the five steps of the coagulation mechanisms?

A

damaged tissue and platelets release factors that stimulate a series of clotting factors
prothrombin converted to thrombin
fibrinogen converted to fibrin
fibrin mesh forms to trap cells
clot retracts pulling edges of damaged tissue together and seal site

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73
Q

What will plasmin do?

A

eventually break down the blood clot

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74
Q

Blood typing is based on what?

A

antigens on the plasma membrane of the rbcs

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75
Q

What antigens and antibodies are for blood type O

A

No antigens

Anti A and B antibodies

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76
Q

What antigens and antibody for type A blood types

A

A antigens

Anti B antibody

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77
Q

What antigens and antibodies for type B blood types

A

B antigens and Anti A antibody

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78
Q

What antigens and antibodies for type AB blood types?

A

A and B antigens and no antibodies

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79
Q

Antigen D on plasma membrane means what?

A

Rh positive

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80
Q

Absence of antigen D means what?

A

Rh negative

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81
Q

What is a complete blood count (CBC)?

A

includes the total red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

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82
Q

What is leukocytosis?

A

increased wbc associated with inflammation or infections

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83
Q

What is leukopenia?

A

decreased wbc associated with some viral infections, radiation and chemotherapy

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84
Q

What does morphology show?

A

size, shape, uniformity, maturity of cells

different types of anemia

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85
Q

What is a hematocrit

A

percent by volume of cellular elements in blood

86
Q

What does hemoglobin indicate?

A

the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood

87
Q

What does Prothrombin time (PT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) measure?

A

function of various factors in coagulation process

88
Q

What does bleeding time measure?

A

platelet function

89
Q

What is bleeding time?

A

the time to plug a small puncture

90
Q

What does the chemical analysis determine?

A

serum levels of components (Fe, Vit B, folic acid, Cholesterol, urea and glucose)

91
Q

What does the chemical analysis indicate?

A

metabolic disorders and disorders within other body systems

92
Q

What is reticulocyte count?

A

immature non-nucleated rbc count

93
Q

What does reticulocyte assess and how is it done?

A

assessment of bone marrow function

done with bone marrow aspiration and biopsy

94
Q

What is epoetin alfa?

A

artificial form of erythropoietin

95
Q

When is epoetin alfa used?

A

before certain surgical procedures
anemia related to cancer
chronic renal failure

96
Q

What is necessary for bone marrow or stem cell transplantation?

A

close tissue match

97
Q

When is a bone marrow or stem cell transplantation used?

A

treatment of some cancers
severe immunodeficiency
severe blood cell diseases

98
Q

What does drug treatment aid in?

A

the clotting process

99
Q

What is in blood dyscrasias

A

anemias

100
Q

Anemia causes what?

A

a reduction in oxygen transport

101
Q

what is the basic problem in anemia

A

hemoglobin deficit

102
Q

Oxygen deficit leads to what five things?

A

less energy production in all cells
compensation mechanisms
general signs of anemia
decreased regeneration of epithelial cells
severe anemia may lead to angina or congestive heart failure

103
Q

Less energy production in all cells has to do with what?

A

cell metabolism and reproduction diminished

104
Q

Compensation mechanisms has to do with what?

A

tachycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction

105
Q

what are the general signs of anemia?

A

fatigue
pallor
dyspnea
tachycardia

106
Q

decreased regeneration of epithelial cells has to do with what four things

A

digestive tract becomes inflamed and ulcerated, leading to stomatitis
inflamed and cracked lips
dysphasia
hair and skin may show degenerative changes

107
Q

Insufficient iron impairs what?

A

hemoglobin synthesis

108
Q

what results of low hemoglobin concentration in cells?

A

hypochromic rbcs

109
Q

Anemia that occurs in all age groups, but more common in women of childbearing age?

A

iron deficiency

110
Q

Anemia: Estimated to affect one in five women but increases for pregnant women

A

iron deficiency

111
Q

causes of iron deficiency anemia

A

dietary intake of iron below minimum requirement
chronic blood loss
impaired duodenal absorption of iron
severe liver disease

112
Q

Normally only what percent of iron absorbed, and increased to what percent when deficit?

A

5-10

20

113
Q

What can lead to chronic blood loss

A 
bleeding
ulcer
hemorrhoids
cancer
excessive menstrual flow
114
Q

severe liver disease affects what as well as iron absorption

A

storage

115
Q

Signs and symptoms of iron deficiency anemia

A 
pallor of skin and mucous membranes
fatigue, lethargy, cold intolerance
irritability
degenerative changes
stomatitis and glossitis
menstrual irregularities
delayed healing
tachycardia, heart palpitations, dyspnea, syncope
116
Q

Which anemia is a Vit B12 deficiency

A

Pernicious

117
Q

What is the basic problem with pernicious anemia?

A

lack of absorption because of lack of intrinsic factor

118
Q

The intrinsic factor of pernicious anemia is secreted by what?

A

gastric mucosa

119
Q

Pernicious anemia is characterized by what?

A

very large, immature, nucleated rbcs

120
Q

The rbc in pernicious anemia have what?

A

shorter life spans and carry less hemoglobin

121
Q

Pernicious anemia five reasons

A 
dietary insufficiency is rarely a cause
malabsorption most common cause
genetic factors have been implicated
often accompanies chronic gastritis
may also be an outcome of gastric surgery
122
Q

Vit B12 is needed for the function and maintenance of what

A

neurons

123
Q

Significant deficit of the vitamin will cause symptoms in the what

A

peripheral nerves

124
Q

Three manifestations in pernicious anemia

A

tongue is typically enlarged, red, sore, and shiny
digestive discomfort, often with nausea and diarrhea
feeling of pins and needles, tingling in limbs

125
Q

Diagnostic tests for pernicious anemia

A

bone marrow examination
Vitamin B12 serum levels below normal
presence of hypochlorhydria or achlorhydria
rbc examination

126
Q

What does the presence of hypochlorhydria or achlorhydria show the presence of

A

gastric atrophy

127
Q

Which anemia has to do with the impairment or failure of bone marrow, leading to loss of stem cells and pancytopenia

A

aplastic

128
Q

what is pancytopenia

A

decrease in rbcs, wbcs, and platelets

129
Q

This anemia may be temporary or permanent

A

aplastic

130
Q

Causes of aplastic anemia include

A

myelotoxins
viruses
autoimmune disease
genetic abnormalities

131
Q

rbcs can often appear normal in which anemia

A

aplastic

132
Q

a bone marrow biopsy may be required in this anemia

A

aplastic

133
Q

is aplastic anemia there are two things required for prompt treatment

A

removal of any bone marrow suppressants

failure to identify cause and treat effectively is life threatening

134
Q

This anemia results from excessive destruction of rbcs

A

hemolytic

135
Q

cause of hemolytic anemia

A 
genetic defects
immune reactions
changes in blood chemistry
infections
toxins in the blood
antigen-antibody reactions
136
Q

examples of hemolytic anemia are

A

sickle cell anemia

thalassemia

137
Q

this anemia is a genetic condition that is autosomal and incomplete dominance

A

sickle cell anemia

138
Q

this anemia is more common in individuals of African ancestry

A

sickle cell anemia

139
Q

cells that are too large to pass through the microcirculation

A

sickle shaped cells

140
Q

obstruction in sickle cell anemia leads to

A

multiple infarctions and areas of necrosis

141
Q

altered what is unstable and changes shape in hypoxemia

A

hemoglobin

142
Q

sickle cell crisis occurs whenever what happens

A

oxygen levels are lowered

143
Q

abnormal hemoglobin (HbS)

A

sickle cell

144
Q

Multiple infarctions affect what

A

brain, bones, organs

145
Q

sickle cell anemia has in addition to basic anemia

A

hyperbilirubinemia
jaundice
gallstones all caused by a high rate of hemolysis

146
Q

clinical signs of this anemia do not usually appear until the child is how old

A

about a year old

147
Q

Sickle cell anemia signs and symptoms

A 
severe pain 
pallor, weakness, tachycardia, dyspnea
splenomegaly
hand-foot syndrome
acute chest syndrome
delay of growth and development
CFH
148
Q

Treatment of sickle cell anemia

A

hydroxyurea has reduced the frequency of this crisis
dietary supplementation with folic acid
bone marrow transplantation
immunization in kids

149
Q

diagnostic tests in sickle cell anemia

A

prenatal DNA analysis

hemoglobin electrophoresis

150
Q

Indications of blood clotting disorder

A 
persistent bleeding from gums
repeated epistaxis
petechiae
frequent purpura and ecchymosis
more than normal bleeding in trauma
bleeding into joint
hemoptysis
blood in feces
anemia
feeling faint, low bp, rapid pulse
151
Q

what is hemoptysis

A

coughing up blood

152
Q

what is hemarthroses

A

swollen, red, painful bleeding into joints

153
Q

what is petechiae

A

pinpoint, flat, red spots on skin and mucous membrane

154
Q

etiologies of blood clotting disorders

A

thrombocytopenia or autoimmune reactions
chemotherapy, radiation treatments, and cancers
defective platelet function is associated with uremia and ingestion of aspirin
vitamin K deficiency may cause decrease in prothrombin and fibrinogen
liver disease reduced available proteins and vitamin k
inherited defects
hemorrhagic fever
anticoagulant drugs

155
Q

Hemophilia A is an abnormality of which factor

A

VIII

156
Q

this is the most common coagulation factor disorder and is x linked recessive trait manifested in men and carried by women

A

Hemophilia A

157
Q

prolonged bleeding after minor tissue trauma, spontaneous bleeding into joints and possible hematuria or blood in feces

A

Hemophilia A

158
Q

diagnostic tests of hemophilia A

A

bleeding time and PT normal

PTT, activated PTT, coagulation time prolonged, serum levels of factor VIII are low

159
Q

Treatment of hemophilia A

A

desmopressin and replacement therapy for factor VIII

160
Q

Most common hereditary clotting disorder

A

von willebrands disease

161
Q

von willebrands disease signs and symptoms

A 
skin rashes
frequent nosebleeds
easy bruising
bleeding of gums
abnormal menstrual bleeding
162
Q

Involves both excessive bleeding and clotting

A

disseminated intravascular coagulation

163
Q

disseminated intravascular coagulation clotting factors are what, prognosis is what, and this results in what

A

reduced to a dangerous level
very poor with high fatality rates
widespread uncontrollable hemorrhage

164
Q

four complications of disseminated intravascular coagulation

A

carcinomas
major trauma
infections
obstetrical complications

165
Q

group of inherited or acquired disorders. Mutations in coagulation genes and surgery or injury that allow for increase of clotting factors

A

thrombophilia

166
Q

thrombophilia has a risk of abnormal what

A

clots in veins or arteries

167
Q

Blood testing for thrombophilia

A

clotting factor levels and abnormal antibody levels

168
Q

primary polycthemia

A

polycythemia vera

169
Q

increased production of rbcs and other cells in the bone marrow
neoplastic disorder
serum erythropoietin levels are low

A

primary polycythemia

170
Q

secondary polycythemia

A

erthrocytosis

171
Q

increase in rbcs in response to prolonged hypoxia
increased erythropoietin secretion
compensation mechanism to provide increased oxygen transport

A

secondary polycthemia

172
Q

Signs and symptoms of polycythemia

A 
distended blood vessels, sluggish blood flow
increased bp
hypertrophied heart
hepatomegaly
splenomegaly
dyspnea
headaches
visual disturbances
thrombosis and infarctions
173
Q

treatment of polycythemia

A

periodic phlebotomy
drugs or radiation to suppress bone marrow cavity
identify the cause

174
Q

diagnostic test of polycythemia

A

increased cell counts
hyperuricemia
hypercellular bone marrow
increased hemoglobin and hematocrit levels

175
Q

what is state of health?

A

difficult to define because of genetic differences among individuals as well as variations in life experiences and environmental influences

176
Q

what does idiopathic mean?

A

cause of disease is unknown

177
Q

what is iatrogenic mean?

A

treatment, procedure or an error may cause a disease

178
Q

prophylaxis

A

designed to preserve health and prevent the spread of disease

179
Q

atrophy

A

decrease in size of cells and reduced tissue mass

180
Q

hypertrophy

A

increase in size of cells and enlarged tissue mass

181
Q

metaplasia

A

one mature cell type is replaced by different mature cell type

182
Q

dysplasia

A

vary in size and shape of cells, large nuclei are frequently present and rate of mitosis is increased

183
Q

anaplasia

A

cells are undifferentiated with variable nuclear and cell structures and numerous mitotic figures

184
Q

neoplasia

A

new growth

185
Q

neoplasm

A

tumor

186
Q

malignant neoplasm

A

cancer

187
Q

benign

A

not necessarily life threatening

188
Q

ischemia

A

decrease supply of oxygenated blood to a tissue or organ due to circulatory obstruction

189
Q

hypoxia

A

decrease oxygen in the tissue

190
Q

group of neoplastic disorders involving wbc

A

leukemia

191
Q

uncontrolled wbc production in bone or lymph nodes

A

leukemia

192
Q

leukemia wbcs are what three things

A

undifferentiated
immature
nonfunctional

193
Q

leukemia infiltrates what five things

A 
lymph nodes
spleen
liver
brain 
other organs
194
Q

malignant b cells cause what types of leukemia

A

acute lymphocytic leukemia
chronic lymphocytic leukemia
hairy cell leukemia

195
Q

What leukemia does granulocytic stem cells occur in

A

acute myelogenous leukemia

chronic myelogenous leukemia

196
Q

What leukemia does monocytes occur in

A

acute monocytic leukemia

197
Q

what age group does acute lymphocytic leukemia

A

young children

198
Q

what age group does acute myelogenous leukemia

A

adults

199
Q

what age group does chronic lymphocytic leukemia

A

adults greater than 50 years

200
Q

what age group does chronic myelogenous leukemia

A

adults 30-50

201
Q

what age group does acute monocytic leukemia

A

adults

202
Q

what age group does hairy cell leukemia

A

males greater than 50 years

203
Q

High proportion of immature nonfunctional cells in bone marrow and peripheral circulation. Onset is abrupt.

A

acute leukemias

204
Q

higher proportion of mature cells. Insidious onset, mild signs and better prognosis

A

chronic leukemias

205
Q

Signs and symptoms of acute leukemia

A 
frequent or uncontrolled infections
petechiae and purpura
signs of anemia
severe and steady bone pain
weight loss, fatigue, possible fever
enlarged lymph nodes, spleen, liver
headache, visual disturbances, drowsiness, vomiting
206
Q

Treatment for leukemia

A

chemotherapy
ALL in young children respond well to drugs
biological therapy
bone marrow transplantation when chemotherapy is ineffective

207
Q

diagnostic tests for leukemia

A

bone marrow biopsy
numbers of rbcs and platelets decreased
immature leukocytes and altered numbers of wbcs

208
Q

complications of leukemia

A 
opportunistic infections
sepsis
CFH
hemorrhage
liver failure
renal failure
CNS depression and coma
209
Q

neoplastic disease that involved increased production of plasma cells in bone marrow

A

multiple myeloma

210
Q

occurs in older adults
unknown cause
production of other blood cells is impaired
poor prognosis with short life expectancy

A

multiple myeloma

Pathophysiology (4 decks)

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