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A & P 1 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

anatomy

A

study of structure

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2
Q

systematic anatomy

A

study of structures that make up a discrete body system

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3
Q

physiology

A

study of function

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4
Q

standard anatomical position

A

standing facing forward, feet hip-width distance apart palms our, proper posture

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5
Q

anterior/ ventral

A

front

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6
Q

posterior/dorsal

A

back

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7
Q

superior

A

above/ towards head

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8
Q

inferior

A
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9
Q

medial

A

toward the midline

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10
Q

lateral

A

away from the midline

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11
Q

proximal

A

closer to the trunk

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12
Q

distal

A

farther from the trunk

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13
Q

superficial

A

more external

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14
Q

deep

A

more internal

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15
Q

Name the cross-sections

A
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16
Q

midsagittal

A

along midline

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17
Q

parasagittal

A

not along midline

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18
Q

cellular composition

A

made up of 1 or more cells

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19
Q

organization

A

display order and hierarchy

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20
Q

metabolism

A

internal chemical reactions

produces waster –> excretion

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21
Q

responsiveness

A

ability to sense and react to stimuli

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22
Q

movement

A

at all levels of organization

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23
Q

Developlment

A

change in form or function over an organism’s lifetimes

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24
Q

reproduction

A

formation of a new organism

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25
Q

Characteristics of Life

A

cellular composition

organization

metabolism

responsiveness

movement

development

reproduction

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26
Q

Levels of Body Organization

A

chemical level –> cellular level –> tissue level –> organ level –> organ system level

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27
Q

components of the integumentary system

A

skin, hair, nails

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28
Q

components of the skeletal system

A

bone and joints

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29
Q

Components of the muscular system

A

skeletal muscle and tendons

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30
Q

How would we best describe muscles in relation to skin?

A

deep to

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31
Q

components of the nervous system

A

brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

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32
Q

components of endocrine system

A

endocrine glands ( pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, testes, ovaries)

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33
Q

component of the cardiovascular system

A

heart and blood vessels

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34
Q

component of the lymphatic system

A

lymph, vessels and nodes, spleen, thymus, bone marrow

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35
Q

component of the respiratory system

A

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, respiratory muscles

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36
Q

component of the digestive system

A

mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs

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37
Q

components of urinary system

A

kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra

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38
Q

component of female reproductive system

A

ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

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39
Q

component of male reproductive system

A

penis, testes, epididymis, urethra, prostate gland

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40
Q

homeostasis

A

state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things

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41
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A

physiological conditions fluctuate around an average value

  • Set point – physiological average
  • Normal range – range of values around set point that are considered typical and healthy
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42
Q

Maintaining homeostasis requires the

A

ability to detect excessive change and active mechanisms to oppose it

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43
Q

Negative feedback loop (definition & process)

A

Def: •Mechanism that negates or reverses a deviation from the setpoint

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44
Q

Positive feedback loop

A
  • Intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it
  • Produces rapid change
  • Requires definite end point
  • Can be harmful if out of control
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45
Q

gradient

A

the difference in value between one point and another

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46
Q

matter and energy spontaneously flow ____ a gradient

A

down

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47
Q

Radiography (X-ray)

(use & reading [black & white])

A
  • Used for:
  • Identifying fractures
  • Mammograms
  • Chest examinations

Reading

black: air
white: bone

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48
Q

Ultrasound (Sonography)

A

Visualize: Developing embryos and fetuses; organ, soft tissues, etc.

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49
Q

Computed Tomography (CT)

A

•Visualizes: Hard and soft tissues, Bony defects, Tumors, Aneurysms, Cerebral hemorrhages, etc

Read: soft tissue: gray; bone: white

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50
Q

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A

Visualize: soft tissues and tumors

Read: soft tissue (gray) bone (black)

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51
Q

elements

A
  • Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
  • Body can’t make elements à must get them from environment
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52
Q

Elements in the Human body

A
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53
Q

Atoms

A

made up of proteins, neutrons, and electrons

smallest unit of matter that still retains unique properties

atomic #- number of protons in the nucleus

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54
Q

chemical bond

A

electrical attraction between atoms that holds them together

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55
Q

molecule

A

2 or more atoms bonded

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56
Q

compound

A

2 or more elements bonded

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57
Q

octet rule

A

an atom is most stable when it has eight electrons in its valance shell

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58
Q

A full valance shell is ____

A

nonreactive

59
Q

Incomplete valance shell is

A

reactive

60
Q

ionic bonds

A

•Transfer of electrons from one atom to another; Forms ions

61
Q

ions

A

charged particles w/ unequal numbers of protons and electrons

62
Q

cations

A

positively charged

63
Q

anion

A

negatively charged

64
Q

How strong is an ionic bond?

A

depends on the number of electrons transferred

65
Q

covalent bond

A
  • Electrons shared between atoms
  • Stronger than ionic bonds
  • Strength of bond depends on number of electrons shared
  • Electronegativity – protons in nucleus attract electrons
  • Equivalent electronegativity –> Nonpolar bond
  • Unequal electronegativity –> Polar bond
66
Q

polar molecules

A
  • Shared electrons spend more time orbiting the more electronegative atom à creates dipole molecule
  • Polar molecules attract other polar molecules and repel nonpolar molecules
67
Q

Chemical reaction

A

process of forming or breaking a covalent or ionic bond

68
Q

anabolic reactions

A

products created by forming new chemical bonds

69
Q

catabolic reactions

A

larger molecules broken down into smaller ones

70
Q

endergonic reactions

A

store energy; anabolic processes

71
Q

exergonic reactions

A

release energy

catabolic reaction

72
Q

Three types of energy in the human body

A

chemical, electrical, mechanical

can be converted into another

73
Q

chemical energy

A

energy stored in molecular bonds

74
Q

electrical energy

A

generated by movement of charged particles (flow of ions)

75
Q

mechanical energy

A

transferred from one object to another to power moevment

76
Q

Kinetic energy

A

the energy of motion i.e. muscle contraction

77
Q

Potential energy

A

stored energy i.e. chemical bonds

78
Q

energy is often lost as

A

heat

79
Q

What kind of homeostatic process is shivering?

A

Negative feedback loop ?

80
Q

Essential organic (3) and inorganic (3) molecules

A

inorganic: water, salts, acids & bases
organic: carbs, lipids, proteins

81
Q

What is the purpose of water in the body?

A
  • universal solvent
  • primary means of transporting substance throughout the body
  • able to ionize electrolytes (capable of conducting electricity)
  • only dissolves hydrophilic molecules
  • thermal stability (i.e. sweating)
  • high density –> cushions and protects organs
82
Q

describe the relationship: cohesions, adhesions, water

A
  • Cohesion/adhesion – tendency of molecules to stick to each other/other molecules
  • Cohesion provides surface tension

Adhesion allows for lubrication

83
Q

Suspension

A
  • liquid mixed with large solid particles
  • Particles will eventually settle
  • E.g. whole blood
84
Q

colloid

A
  • liquid mixed with small solid particles
  • Particles remain suspended
  • E.g. milk
85
Q

Solution

A
  • solid/gas dissolved in a liquid or 2 liquids combined
  • Clear/translucent
  • E.g. blood plasma
86
Q

acids

A

releases H+ ion in water

87
Q

bases

A

accept free H+ ion; typically OH-

88
Q

What determines acidity?

A

H+ concentration in a solution determines the acidity

Represented by pH scale

exponential rather than linear

89
Q

Buffer

A

a chemical system that resists changes in pH

weak acid+ weak base

90
Q

electrolytes

A
  • Cation + anion held together by ionic bonds
  • Dissociate into ions in water
  • Conduct electricity à important for nerve and muscle cell functioning
91
Q

carbohydrates

A
  • Carbo- –> carbon
  • -hydrate –> water (H and O)
  • Polar –> hydrophilic
  • Functions: Energy; Structural components of DNA/RNA; Structural components of cells
92
Q

lipids

A
  • Fats and oils
  • Nonpolar –> hydrophobic
  • Can dissolve in/act as a solvent for other nonpolar compounds
  • Functions:
  • Energy
  • Insulate and cushion organs
  • Regulate body temperature
  • Structural component of cell membranes
  • Hormones/signaling molecules
93
Q

Proteins

A
  • Amino acids linked by peptide bonds
  • Can be polar or nonpolar
  • Can form colloids
  • Functions:
  • structural` component of cells and tissues
  • Membrane transport
  • Hormones/signaling molecules and receptors
  • Catalysts (enzymes)
94
Q

What are the four general cell process?

A

metabolism; transport of substances, communication, reproduction

95
Q

plasma membrane

A

flexible outer surface

  • Barrier separating intracellular fluid (ICF) from the extracellular fluid (ECF)
  • Selective permeability
  • Communication
  • Cell identification
96
Q

cytoplasm

A

intracellular fluid containing organelles/

internal fluid, cytoskeleton, and organelles

•Internal fluid – cytosol

97
Q

nucleus

A

DNA-containing control center

98
Q
A
99
Q

What is the plasma membrane made of?

A

phospholipid bilayer

  • Phospholipid – phosphate group + 2 fatty acid chains à hydrophilic “head” with hydrophobic “tail”
  • amphiphilic
  • Fluidity of components allows for cell reproduction, transport of substances, etc.
  • Creates fluid mosaic pattern
100
Q

What components are in the plasma membrane?

A
  • Membrane proteins
  • Integral or peripheral
  • Functions:
  • Transport
  • Communication
  • Catalysts
  • Recognition
  • Support
  • Other components
  • Cholesterol – stabilizes membrane structure
  • Glycocalyx
  • Unique to individual organism and cell type –> cell recognition
101
Q

cytoskeleton

A
  • Provides an internal framework
  • Provides stability to the plasma membrane
  • Helps transport, position, and anchor organelles
  • Aids cell division
102
Q

ribosomes

A
  • Synthesize proteins
  • Free or membrane-bound
103
Q

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A
  • Smooth or rough
  • Synthesize proteins, fats, hormones
  • Calcium storage
104
Q

lysosome

A
  • Contain digestive enzymes
  • Break down nutrients, old cell components
105
Q

nucleus

A
  • Contains DNA
  • Site of RNA and ribosome synthesis
106
Q

mitochondria

A
  • Produce most of the body’s ATP
  • Contain their own DNA
107
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Processes proteins and lipids from ER

108
Q

Passive Transport

A
  • Substances diffuse until equilibrium is reached à no energy needed
  • Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or osmosis
109
Q

Active transport

A
  • Substances moved against concentration gradient à requires energy
  • Primary/secondary active transport
  • Vesicular transport
110
Q

Simple diffusion

A
  • Nonpolar, lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer
  • E.g.: oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroid hormones, fatty acids
111
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A
  • Requires the involvement of membrane proteins
  • Protein channels – usually specific to an individual solute
  • Carrier proteins
  • Uniporter – carries single solute
  • Symporter – carries 2 solutes in the same direction
  • Antiporter – exchanges 2 solutes
  • E.g. glucose, amino acids, ions
112
Q

Osmosis

A
  • Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
  • Flows along osmotic gradient
  • Water diffuses across plasma membranes:
  • Through aquaporins
  • Directly through lipid bilayer
  • Occurs until solute concentrations equalize
  • Results in volume changes on both sides
113
Q

Isotonic solution

A

Cells retain their normal size and shape in isotonic solutions (same solute/water concentration as inside cells; water moves in and out).

114
Q

hypertonic solutions

A

Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink in a hypertonic solution (contains a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than are present inside the cells).

115
Q

hypotonic solution

A

Cells take on water by osmosis until they become bloated and burst (lyse) in a hypotonic solution (contains a lower concentration of nonpenetrating solutes

than are present inside cells).

116
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

pressure exerted on a membrane due to water volume (outward pressure)

117
Q

osmotic pressure

A

force of solutes drawing water towards themselves (inward pressure)

118
Q

Comparison of hydrostatic and osmotic pressure –> result

A
  • Hydrostatic pressure = osmotic pressure à no net movement of water
  • Hydrostatic pressure < osmotic pressure à water will move into cell
  • Hydrostatic pressure > osmotic pressure à water will move out of cell
119
Q

Primary active transport

A
  • Uses energy to transport a molecule against its concentration gradient
  • Enhances concentration gradient
  • Important for nerve and muscle function
120
Q

Secondary Active Transport

A

•concentration gradient created by primary active transport used to transport another molecule against its concentration gradient

  1. Primary active transport enhances concentration gradient of Substance 1
  2. Substance 1 allowed to passively move back into/out of cell
  3. Substance 2 co-transported against its concentration gradient
121
Q

Phagocytosis

A
  • Pseudopods flow around particle to be engulfed
  • Form phagosome
  • Phagosome merges with lysosome
  • Contents are digested
  • Phagosome receptors can bind to microorganisms/solid particles
  • Important mechanism for immune system
122
Q

Pinocytosis

A
  • ECF brought into cell
  • Main mechanism of nutrient absorption in small intestine
  • No receptors –> nonspecific
123
Q

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A
  • Receptors on cell surface bind specific substances
  • Allows cell to ingest and concentrate target substances in vesicles
  • Released inside cell
  • Digested in lysosome
124
Q

exocytosis

A
  • Ejection of material from cell
  • E.g. hormones, mucus, wastes
125
Q

tissue

A
  • Discrete population of related cells + extracellular matrix
  • Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
126
Q

epithelial tissue

A
  • Sheets of cells covering body surfaces, lining cavities
  • Glands – specialized epithelial tissue
  • Main functions:
  • Protection, sensory reception, absorption, filtration, secretion
127
Q

connective tissue

A
  • Cells scattered through the matrix
  • Main functions: fill internal spaces, support other tissues, transport materials, store energy
128
Q

Muscle Tissue

A
  • Contractile cells
  • Produce movement
  • Skeletal, cardiac and smooth
129
Q

Nervous Tissue

A
  • Specialized for electrical conduction
  • Generate, send, and receive information via electrical signals
130
Q

tissue membrane

A

•Thin layer of tissue covering or lining a structure

131
Q

Types of connective tissue membranes and location

A
  • Capsular – cover organ surfaces
  • Synovial – line joint cavities, produce synovial fluid
132
Q

Epithelial tissue membranes and location

A
  • Epithelium attached to connective tissue
  • Mucous – line regions open to the environment, secrete mucous
  • Serous – line body cavities, secrete serous fluid
  • Cutaneous – i.e. skin
133
Q

Functions of Epithelia

A
  • Protection – from dehydration and damage
  • Immune defense – blocks pathogens
  • Secretion – releases substances
  • Transport regulation – selectively permeable barrier
  • Sensation – highly innervated
134
Q

Features of Epithelia

A
135
Q

Three types of cellular connections

A

tight junction, anchoring junctions, gap junctions

136
Q

Tight junction

A
  • Tightly interlocking integral proteins
  • Make spaces impermeable
137
Q

anchoring junctions

A
  • More loosely interlocking integral proteins
  • Stabilize tissues
138
Q

Gap junction

A
139
Q

Glands

A

Collection of cells that produce and release secretions

140
Q

endocrine glands

A
  • Ductless à secretions released into the circulatory system
  • Secrete hormones
141
Q

exocrine glands

A
  • Secrete products via ducts for local use
  • Usually multicellular
  • Unicellular – goblet cells
142
Q

Connective tissue composition

A
  • Common embryonic origin: mesenchyme
  • Composed of:
  • Cells
  • Protein fibers
  • Collagen: tensile strength
  • Elastic: stretch and recoil
  • Reticular: support
  • Ground substance
  • ECF, proteins, carbohydrates
  • Cushions and supports tissue

Protein fibers and ground substances make up the ECM

143
Q
A
144
Q

Function of Connective Tissue

A

1) Support
2) Protection
3) Transportation of fluids
4) Insulation
5) Energy storage

A & P 1 (1 decks)

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