Exam 1

Question 1

What are the four major themes of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy?

Answer 1

Scientific, Active, Present-focused, & Learning-focused

Question 2

What are the common characteristics of CBT?

Answer 2

Individualized, Step-wise progression, Treatment packages/protocols, Brevity

Question 3

How is the therapist/client relationship viewed in CBT?

Answer 3

As necessary but not sufficient for therapeutic change. In CBT, the relationship is collaborative. The therapist is the expert in treatment and psychology and the client is the agent of change.

Question 4

Reinforcer

Answer 4

A key principle of operant conditioning - an immediate consequence of a behavior that makes that behavior more likely to occur in the future.

Question 5

Stimulus

Answer 5

In behavior therapy, a stimulus is something that elicits a response from an individual. Stimuli can be unconditioned or unconditioned.

Question 6

Response

Answer 6

In behavioral therapy, a response is a physiological, emotional, cognitive or behavioral reaction to a particular stimulus. For example, many people experience fear (response) when they encounter a snake (stimuli).

Question 7

UCS - Unconditioned stimuli

Answer 7

In respondent conditioning, an unconditioned stimuli is a stimuli, which at the onset of an experiment, evokes a measurable and regular response such as a loud noise, pupil dilation or salivation

Question 8

UCR - Unconditioned response

Answer 8

In respondent conditioning, an unconditioned response is the regular and measurable response to an unconditioned stimulus

Question 9

CS - Conditioned stimulus

Answer 9

In respondent conditioning, a conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that is neutral at the onset of an experiment.
It does not evoke an unconditioned response until it is paired with an UCS.

Question 10

CR - Conditioned response

Answer 10

In respondent conditioning, a conditioned response happens as the result of a continuous pairing of a CS and an UCS. It is always the same as the UCR.

Question 11

Conditioned reinforcer

Answer 11

In operant conditoning, a secondary reinfocer or something that is not naturally reinforcing. Examples are money, tokens, and grades. A once neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned or primary reinforcer and used to influence behavior.

Question 12

Biological preparedness of fear conditioning

Answer 12

In operant conditioning, this refers to our evolutionary predisposition to have a fear response to certain stimuli such as snakes, spiders, or heights.

Question 13

Premack principle

Answer 13

In operant conditioning, the Premack principle refers to a process by which one attempts to increase the frequency of a particular behavior by making the performance of a more frequently occurring behavior to be contingent upon it. For example, if someone wanted to develop a meditation practice, but had trouble making it a habit, they could make something they do frequently like brushing their teeth, contingent upon the performance of meditation. I can’t brush my teeth until I have meditated. This is useful when it is difficult to identify or manipulate reinforcers in the natural environment.

Question 14

Generalization

Answer 14

In behavior therapy, generalization occurs when a conditioned response happens after an individual is confronted with a stimuli that is similar to the CS. For example, Watson is famous for creating a conditioned fear response to white rabbits in a patient named Little Albert. This fear response generalized to stimuli similar such as white rats and Watson’s white beard.

Question 15

Discrimination

Answer 15

In behavior therapy, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli; when the CR occurs only in response to the original or discriminative CS.

Question 16

Schedules of reinforcement

Answer 16

A schedule that determines when or under what conditions a behavior will be reinforced. There are four different types of reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, and variable ration. Variable ratio is the best schedule for creating behaviors that are difficult to distinguish.

Question 17

Intrinsic reinforcers

Answer 17

Intrinsic reinforcers are things that happen within an individual that when paired with a specific behavior, make the behavior more likely. For example, a sense of pride about completing a task is an intrinsic reward.

Question 18

Extrinsic reinforcers

Answer 18

Reinforcers that are external to individuals but make the occurrence of a specific behavior more likely. Money, pain and praise are all examples of extrinsic reinforcers.

Question 19

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 19

A phase of conditioning in which after extinction, a CS is able to elicit a CR again.

Question 20

Dinstinguish between respondent and operant conditioning.

Answer 20

Respondent conditioning is a type of learning that happens via association. A previous neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus several times in order to create a conditioned response. In other words, specific stimuli are paired to create a conditioned response. Operant conditioning is a type of learning that happens via reinforcement. Consquences are used to modify the occurrence and frequency of particular behaviors.

Question 21

What are the stages of conditioning? How would this apply to the development and treatment of a specific phobia?

Answer 21

Acquisition - a previously neutral stimuli is paired with an UCS to create a CR. This stage might lead to the creation of specific phobias. For example, if a child is repeatedly barked at and nipped by a neighbor’s dog, they could acquire a fear of dogs.

Extinction - a phase in which the CS no longer elicits the CR after repeated presentations of the CS without the UCS. This principle could be used therapeutically to help a child with a phobia of dogs. By repeatedly pairing the dog (CS) without the loud barking or nipping, the CR will diminish.

Spontaneous recovery - a phenomenon in which, following extinction, the CS is again able to elicit the CR. If after extinction the child encounters a dog and experiences the CR (fear) again.

Re-conditioning - a phase of conditioning in which a CS is again paired with a UCS and the CS very quickly reacquires the ability to elicit the CR. If after extinction the child encounters the neighbor’s dog again and the dog barks aggressively at her, the CS will quickly elicit the CR again.

Counterconditioning - The CS is paired with another UCR to stop the original CR also called stimulus substitution. An unwanted response is replaced by a new, more desirable response. To help treat a phobia of dogs, a therapist may expose the child to the dog and present a child with a treat. Gradually the therapist will move the dog closer to the child and present the treat each time the dog is moved closer. Eventually, the fear (CR) will be replaced by the pleasant feelings of receiving a treat.

Question 22

Compare behavior under fixed and variable schedules.

Answer 22

Variable schedules of reinforcement are more likely to lead to behaviors that are more difficult to extinguished than fixed schedules of reinforcement. Variable schedules foster long-term maintenance of behaviors, transfer and generaltization.

Question 23

Discuss the importance of context and novel situations in substance abuse overdose.

Answer 23

Research has demonstrated that people are more likely to overdose in novel situtuations. This is because, people with addictions develop a CR to the environment in which they normally use their substances (CS). Their body physiologically prepares for an intake of substance at the presence of their environment. This allows them to use more and more of a substance or, develop tolerance. When that person is in a novel environment, it does not elicit the CR. If that person uses the same amount they do in their normal environment, their body is not prepared for the intake and it could lead to an overdose.

Question 24

Idiographic

Answer 24

Individualized; behavioral assessment is idiographic in that rather than diagnosis and label an individual, it works to assess the specific and individualized maintaining conditions of a behavior

Question 25

Behavioral assessment

Answer 25

A functional approach rather than a classification system of assessment that includes an analysis of the maintaining conditions of a problem behavior. This is a type of individualize and personalized assessment, looking at the specific antecendants and consequences of a behavior.

Question 26

Overt vs. Covert behaviors

Answer 26

Overt behaviors are external; actions that can be seen and measured directly such as smiling, talking, yelling.

Covert behaviors are internal or private behaviors that have to be inferred from self-report measures including cognitions emotions and physiological responses.

Question 27

Maintaining conditions

Answer 27

In behavioral assessment, maintaining conditions are the antecendents and consequences that maintain a problem behavior. In behavioral therapy, they are the target of treatment. We change the maintaining conditions in order to change the problem behavior(s).

Question 28

IFR

Answer 28

A client’s internal frame of reference (IFR) refers to their idiographic phenomenological experience. We all have subjective experiences of the world. Often people have broad or vague descriptions of therapy goals - i.e. “I just want to feel like myself again.” Getting at an individual’s IFR is important in bx therapy so we know what behaviors to target and can assess their maintaining conditions.

Question 29

Assets

Answer 29

In ABCPA behavioral assessment model, assets are the skills or strengths an individual has that may be useful during therapy.

Question 30

Self-monitoring

Answer 30

A type of data collection technique in behavioral assessment and therapy in which individuals track their own behaviors, antecedents and consequences. Helpful for getting at covert behaviors and compared to in vivo observation it is easier and cheaper to implement.

Question 31

Describe the essential features of behavioral analysis.

Answer 31

BA assumes we are defined by our behaviors.
It is a functional approach to therapy rather than a trait or diagnositc approach.
BA is concerned with maintaining conditions of behaviors.
The ABCPA model assesses the antecendents to behaviors, measurable or operationalized behaviors, consequences of the behavior, any person variables that impact a behavior and an individuals strengths/assets that they bring to therapy.

Question 32

How does the use of DSM categories fit into behavioral assessment.

Answer 32

For the most part, behavioral assessment is not concerned with diagnostic categories but rather looks at individualized maintaining conditions of problem behaviors. However, behavioral therapists may employ DSM diagnostic categories for practical, insurance-based reasons.

Question 33

Review the types of data used in behavioral analysis.

Answer 33

In behavioral analysis, data is collected in several ways. Individuals may be observed by others in vivo. This allows for target behaviors to be observed in their natural settings. However, it is often impractical as it can be time-consuming and/or expensive, it may lead to reactivity which can impact the validity of the approach and there are questions about inter-rater reliability with this method. You can also not assess covert behaviors using direct observation. Self-monitoring is another way to collect data. It can be done anywhere, can get at covert behavior and allows for client control. However, success is dependent on the target behavior being well-defined and regularly and accurately tracked by the client.

Different sampling methods include: interviews, checklists or rating scales, role-playing, direct observation in natural environment, and questionnaires o psychological testing.

Question 34

How are problems classified in behavioral analysis.

Answer 34

Problems are conceptualized as specific and measurable behaviors that are maintained by specific and individualized antecendents and consequences rather than specific classifications or disorders.

Question 35

What should be considered when selecting target behaviors for interventions?

Answer 35

Target behaviors should be precisely defined, appropriate and adaptive, and quantifiable. When multiple behaviors are identified as problems, the following criteria can be used to decide which behavior to target first: whether or not the behavior is dangerous to self or others, client’s desires, the behaviors impact on other people, how easy the behavior is to chagne and the contextual limitations present.

Question 36

Reciprocal determinism

Answer 36

An assumption of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory that states there is a reciprocal relationship or three-way interaction between person, behavior, and environment. In other words, all the different categories have influences on one another.

Question 37

Modeling

Answer 37

According to Social Learning Theory (Bandura), modeling is another method of learning. We learn vicariously by watching others.

Question 38

Expectancies: outcome/efficacy

Answer 38

Expectancies are part of Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective System. Expectancies are what we expect to happen in any given situation.

Outcome expectancies refer to our beliefs about wether or not a behavior will produce a specific outcome.

Efficacy expectancies refer to our beliefs that one is capable of performing a specific behavior.

Question 39

Self-efficacy

Answer 39

In Mischel’s C-A System, self-efficacy if our belief in our ability to perform a behavior. It is fundamental to bx change. We have unique patterns or clusters of expectancies. Self-efficacy is a combination of our ability to learn (acquisition) and our experience (reinforcement).

Question 40

Learning-performace distinction

Answer 40

Learning is primarily an internal or cognitive process whereas performance is primarily an external process. Learning may not always be performed outwardly, but performance is always external. This distinction is important when designing a behavioral intervention. If there bx has not been learned, skill acquisition will be the target of therapy. If the behavior has been learned but is not being performed, motivation via reinforcement will be the target of therapy.

Question 41

Describe the assumptions of Bandura’s social learning theory.

Answer 41

• Learning does happen via respondent and operant conditioning
• But, these principles are insufficient for describing complex learning and behavior
• Vicarious learning accounts for the majority of human learning
• Expectancies play a major role in learning and behavior
• There is a 3-way interaction between behavior, environment and person (reciprocal determinism)
• Humans are more active participants in learning

Question 42

Describe the reciprocal interaction between P<>E<>B

Answer 42

Reciprocal determinism says that a person is influenced and can influence their environment and behaviors, behaviors are influenced and can be influenced by people and environments and that environments influence and can be influenced by people and behaviors. For example,

Question 43

Review the process of vicariouos learning.

Answer 43

Vicarious learning happens when we observe others performing behaviors and the perceived consequences of their performance influence our own behavior. When we see a model reinforced for a specific behavior, we are more likely to perform that behavior. When we observe a model punished for a specific behavior, we are less likely to perform that behavior.

Question 44

Why is the learning-performance distinction important?

Answer 44

This distinction is important when designing a behavioral intervention. If there bx has not been learned, skill acquisition will be the target of therapy. If the behavior has been learned but is not being performed, motivation via reinforcement will be the target of therapy.

Question 45

Empiricism and Behaviorism

Answer 45

Behaviorism marked a turning point for the field of psychology. Until the 1950s, psychoanalytic theory was the primary orientation for psychologists. But psychoanalysis was being criticized for many reasons including the inability to test/measure the efficacy specific treatment approaches. Behaviorism rejected this premise and purported that only observable/measurable should be studied. It is rooted in empiricism. BT looks at only observable and quantifiable measures and treatment approaches are tailored to each individual.

Question 46

Spontaneous remission

Answer 46

Spontaneous remission is the phenomenon where a disorder goes away for no apparent reason or without intervention.

Question 47

Reciprocal inhibition

Answer 47

A concept developed by Joseph Wolpe which seeks to inhibit specific responses, like anxiety, to stimuli by a feeling that is not compatiable with anxiety such as pleasure. So if a child had a fear of dogs, a bxT may present the child with a candy every time she presented a dog. This pleasurable feeling would inhibit the child from experiencing the anxiety.

Question 48

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Answer 48

The development of SLT helped expanded on behavioral principles and ideas by demonstrating that humans can learn vicariously via modeling, that the environment, cognitions and behaviors all influence one another, and by introducing the concept of self-efficacy.

Question 49

Rational Emotive Therapy

Answer 49

A type of congitive therapy developed by Albert Ellis which expanded on ideas of behavioral therapy by purporting that changing maladaptive cognitions can allow a therapist to change problem behaviors. In other words, it is our interpretation of events rather than the events themselves that lead to problems.

Question 50

Describe the historical context within which Behavior Therapy initially developed.

Answer 50

Behavior therapy was largely a reaction psychoanalysis’ focus on unconscious and unmeasurable processes. Key figures criticized Freud and other psychoanalysts including Joseph Wolpe’s criticism of the Little Hans case and Eyesenck’s critique on the efficacy of pscyhoanalyiss broadly. These critiques led to a movement which focused, at first, solely on what was overtly performed and measurable.

Question 51

What were the initial criticisms of Behavior Therapy

Answer 51

It was seen as cold and unfeeling
Ethical concerns about controlling or dehumanizing behavior, or manipulative
Seen as only applicable in laboratory settings rather than in therapeutic ones.
Problematic language - punishment, behavior modification, conditioning