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Advanced Physiology and Pharmacology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

How many cells are in the body

How many of these are RBC’s

A

100 trillion or more

About 25 trillion are RBC’s

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2
Q

What are the principal components of cells

A

Nucleus (except in RBC’s) and the cytoplasm

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3
Q

What are the most abundant constituents of cell membranes

A

Proteins and phospholipids

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4
Q

What is required for neurotransmitters to be ejected from cells by exocytosis

A

Calcium ions

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5
Q

The sodium-potassium pump account for how much energy consumption in the brain

A

50%

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6
Q

Calcium ATPases are responsible for maintaining very low cytoplasmic concentrations of calcium by (2 ways)

A
  1. Ejecting calcium from the cell (plasma membrane calcium ATPase)
  2. sequestering calcium in the endoplasmic reticulum via the sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA ATPase)
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7
Q

What are ion channels

A

Transmembrane proteins that generate electrical signals in the brain, nerves, heart and skeletal muscles

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8
Q

How do ion channels cause conduction of an action potential

A

Use the energy stored in the chemical and electrical gradients created by sodium-potassium ATPase to rapidly initiate changes in transmembrane potential

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9
Q

What is tetrodotoxin

A

specific blocker of sodium ion channels as a result of binding to the extracellular side of the channel

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10
Q

what is tetraethylammonium

A

specific blocker of potassium ion channels by attaching to the inside surface of the membrane

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11
Q

What is P glycoprotein responsible for

A

the movement of many drugs across the cell membrane

transport of morphine out of CNS, slowing the rate of rise of morphine into the CNS

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12
Q

What is the nucleolus responsible for

A

synthesis of ribosomes

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13
Q

What is present in the cytoplasm near the nucleus and concerned with the movement of chromosomes during cell division

A

Centrioles

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14
Q

DNA consists of two complementary nucleotide chains composed of

A

adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine

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15
Q

What is included in the Cytoplasm

A

mitochondria, ER, lysosomes and golgi apparatus

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16
Q

What are mitochondria

A

power-generating units of cells containing both the enzymes and substrates of the tricarboxylic acid cycle(Krebs cycle) and the electron transport chain

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17
Q

Where does the synthesis of ATP occur

A

mitochondria

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18
Q

Ribosomes, composed mainly of RNA, attach to the outer portions of

A

the rough ER

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19
Q

What is the part of the membrane that lacks ribosomes

A

smooth ER

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20
Q

The smooth ER functions in the synthesis of

A

lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and other enzymatic processes

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21
Q

Where is the sacroplasmic reticulum found and what does it do

A

found in muscle cells and serves as a reservoir for calcium

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22
Q

What are lysosomes

A

Lipid membrane-enclosed globules providing an intracellular digestive system

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23
Q

What are the digestive enzymes lysosomes are filled with

A

hydrolytic enzymes

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24
Q

Bactericidal substances in the lysosome kill phagocytized bacteria before they can cause cellular damage. These bactericidal substances include

A
  • lysozyme (dissolves cell membranes of bacteria)
  • lysoferrin (binds to iron and other metals essential for bacterial growth
  • acid that has a pH <4
  • hydrogen peroxide (can disrupt some bacterial metabolic systems)
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25
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus

A

Collection of membrane-enclosed sacs responsible for storing proteins and lipids
Also performs postsynthetic modifications including glycosylation and phosphorylation

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26
Q

Where are proteins synthesized in the rough ER transported to

What are they stored in

Where are they released (2 answers)

A

Golgi apparatus

Secretory vesicles

The cell’s cytoplasm or transport to the surface for extracellular release via exocytosis

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27
Q

When do exocytotic vesicles release their contents

A

continuously

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28
Q

When do secretory vesicles release their contents

A

they store the packaged material until a triggering signal is received (neurotransmitter release)

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29
Q

Where are lysosomes created

A

Golgi apparatus

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30
Q

What are eukaryotes

A

cells that have a nucleus (plants, animals, fungi)

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31
Q

What are prokaryotes

A

cells who do not have a nucleus (bacteria)

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32
Q

Where is DNA transcribed

A

nucleus

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33
Q

Once DNA is transcribed it is translated into messenger RNA (mRNA) in the

A

ribosomes

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34
Q

mRNA in the ribosomes of the cells are converted into

A

proteins

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35
Q

The maintenance of a normal cell volume and pressure depends on

A

sodium-potassium pump (ATPase)

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36
Q

How many functional types of proteins are within the cell membrane

A

5

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37
Q

What do channel proteins do

A

move ions through the cell membrane by concentration gradients

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38
Q

What do transport (carrier) proteins do

A

help ions and molecules move against their concentration gradient with the use of ATP (Sodium-potassium pump)

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39
Q

What do integral proteins do

A

completely transverse the cell membrane and allow substances through move through (channel and pump)

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40
Q

What do peripheral proteins do

A

associated with and conducts enzymatic and hormonal reactions

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41
Q

Where are peripheral proteins lovated

A

can be located inside or outside of the cell but they do not transverse the cell membrane

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42
Q

What do receptor proteins do

A

allow substances to bind and elicit responses

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43
Q

Where are structural proteins found

A

microtubules

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44
Q

What is a protein

A

a chain of amino acids (polypeptide)

translated from mRNA

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45
Q

What can proteins be (3 answers)

A
  • enzymes (involved with catalyzing chemical reactions)
  • receptors (control signaling to mitochondria)
  • hemoglobin (found in muscle and organ tissue)
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46
Q

Transmission of impulses between responsive neurons at a synapse is mediated by

A

Release of a neurotransmitter from the presynaptic terminal (ex. glutamate &. GABA)

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47
Q

What nerve fibers transmit impulses from peripheral receptors to the CNS

A

Afferent

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48
Q

What nerve fibers transmit impulses from the CNS to the periphery

A

Efferent

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49
Q

How are afferent nerve fibers classified

A

Based on their diameter and velocity of conduction on nerve impulses (A, B, C)

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50
Q

How are type-A fibers subdivided

A

alpha, beta, gamma

51
Q

What type of fibers transmit signals regarding cutaneous mechanoreceptors

A

A-beta

52
Q

Touch and fast pain are transmitted by what kind of fibers

A

lightly myelinated type a-delta fibers with free nerve endings

53
Q

What type of fibers transmit slow pain, pruritus and temperature sensation

A

Type C fibers

54
Q

What nerve fibers have myelin

A

Type A and B

55
Q

What type of fibers are unmyelinated

A

Type C

56
Q

The successive excitation of nodes of Ranvier by an action potential that jumps between successive nodes is

A

Saltatory conduction

57
Q

During much of the action potential the cell membrane is completely refractory to further stimulation. This is called

A

Absolute refractory period. Caused by the presence of a large fraction of inactivated sodium ion channels

58
Q

During the last portion of the action potential a stronger than normal stimulus can evoke a second action potential. This is called

A

relative refractory period

59
Q

What blocks many types of potassium ion channels

A

Tetraethylammonium

60
Q

What blocks many types of sodium ion channels

A

Tetrodotoxin

61
Q

Where are the sites of continuous synthesis and storage of neurotransmitters (2 answers)

A

Synaptic vesicles of the cell body and dendrites of neurons

62
Q

Can vesicles contain and release only one neurotransmitter

A

No, they can contain and release more than one neurotransmitter

63
Q

What is an important coagonist at the NMDA receptor

A

Glycine

64
Q

How many classes of cell surface receptors are there?

What are they

A

3

G protein coupled receptors, ligand-gated ion channels and enzyme-linked transmembrane receptors

65
Q

Rapid synaptic transmission is accomplished entirely through what kind of channels

A

voltage-gated ion channels

66
Q

What are examples of tyrosine kinase-linked membrane receptors (3)

A

the insulin receptor, atrial natriuretic peptide receptor and the receptors for many growth factors

67
Q

What kind of intracellular receptors act in the nucleus where they directly regulate the transcription of specific genes? (2)

A

steroid receptors and thyroid hormone receptors

68
Q

What kind of inhibitors act in the cytosol by inhibiting the activity of phosphodiesterase, increasing the cytosolic concentration of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

A

phosphodiesterase inhibitors

69
Q

what are the three components of a G protein-coupled receptor

A

a receptor protein, three G proteins (alpha, beta and gamma) and an effector mechanism

70
Q

Binding of an extracellular ligand to the G protein-coupled receptor triggers conformational change of the protein. That change causes activation of the G alpha protein coupled to the interior portion of the receptor. How does the activation occur?

A

It occurs by exchanging a GDP moiety that is bound to the protein for a GTP.

71
Q

Beta adrenergic receptors couple with stimulatory G alpha proteins and increase the activity of

A

Adenylyl cyclase (adenylate cyclase)

72
Q

Opioid receptors associate with inhibitory G alpha proteins that

A

decrease the activity of adenylyl cyclase

73
Q

Many hormones and drugs act through G protein-coupled receptors including (4)

A

catecholamines, opioids, anticholinergics and antihistamines

74
Q

Dopamine has high concentrations in the

A

Basal ganglia

75
Q

Dopamine is important to the reward centers of the brain and plays a key role in (2)

A

addiction and tolerance to anesthetic and analgesic drugs

76
Q

Norepinephrine is present in large amounts in (2)

A

the reticular activating system and hypothalamus

77
Q

The sedative action of dexmedetomidine is mediated by activation of alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the

A

locus ceruleus

78
Q

How does dexmedetomidine work in the receptors of the locus ceruleus

A

inhibits firing of the ventral lateral preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus (VLPO)

79
Q

What type of neurotransmitter is substance P

A

excitatory neurotransmitter

80
Q

Where is substance P release

A

It is coreleased by terminals of pain fibers that synapse in the substantia gelatinosa of the spinal cord

81
Q

What type of G protein-coupled receptor does substance P activate

A

neurokinin-1

82
Q

What type of agonists are endorphins

Where are they secreted

A

endogenous opioid peptide agonists

Secreted by nerve terminals in the pituitary, thalamus, hypothalamus brainstem and spinal cord

83
Q

What do endorphins act through

A

mew opioid receptors

84
Q

The release of what is facilitated by endorphins

A

dopamine release

85
Q

What do endorphins activate

A

inhibitory pain pathways

86
Q

Serotonin is present in high concentrations in

A

the brain

87
Q

Serotonin in the brain acts on (2)

A

ligand-gated ion channels and g protein-coupled receptors

88
Q

Where are serotonin receptors located

A

Chemoreceptor trigger zone

89
Q

What are serotonin receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone inhibited by

A

ondansetron, granisetron and other common antiemetic drugs

90
Q

Histamine is present in high concentrations in the

A

Hypothalamus and reticular activating system

91
Q

Histaminergic neurons active during the wake cycle are located in the

A

tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus

92
Q

The sleep promoting properties of antihistamine drugs that cross the BBB are due to inhibition of

A

H1 G protein-coupled receptors

93
Q

Three basic types of ion channels

A

ligand-gated ion channels (ionotropic receptors), voltage-sensitive ion channels and ion channels that respond to other types of gating

94
Q

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are opened in the presence of

A

acetylcholine

95
Q

Serotonin receptors are opened in the presence of

A

serotonin

96
Q

GABA receptors are opened in the presence of

A

GABA

97
Q

Glycine receptors are opened in the presence of

A

glycine

98
Q

The native agonist for NMDA and AMPA is

A

glutamate

99
Q

What type of neurotransmitter is acetylcholine and what does it activate

A

excitatory

muscarinic and nicotinic receptors in the CNS

100
Q

Nicotinic acetycholine receptors are nonspecific cations and is

A

depolarizing

101
Q

Where are nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain commonly located

A

presynaptic location

102
Q

G protein-coupled muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system have what type of effect

A

inhibitory effect

103
Q

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are also responsible for

A

activating muscle contraction

104
Q

Nondepolarizing muscle relaxants work by blocking

A

the acetylcholine binding site. Causes depolarization-excitatory

105
Q

What is the major excitatory amino acid transmitter in the CNS

A

glutamate

106
Q

Glutamate receptors are

A

excitatory and depolarizing

107
Q

Glutamate plays a key role in

A

learning, memory, central pain transduction and pathologic processes such as excitotoxic neuronal injury following CNS trauma or ischemia

108
Q

What is glutamate synthesized by

A

the deamination of glutamine via the Krebs cycle

109
Q

Glutamate is released into the synaptic cleft in response to

A

depolarization of the presynaptic terminal

110
Q

The two main subgroups of glutamate receptors are

A

inotropic and metabotropic receptors

111
Q

What are three examples of ionotrpic glutamate receptors

A

NMDA, AMPA and kainate receptors

112
Q

Metabotropic glutamate receptors are transmembrane receptors that are linked to

They modulate with second messengers such as

A

G proteins

inositol phosphates and cyclic nucleotides

113
Q

The serotonin receptor is

A

excitatory

114
Q

What is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

A

GABA

115
Q

What happens when two molecules of GABA bind to the GABA receptor

A

the chloride channel in the center of the receptor opens and chloride ions enter the cell

116
Q

GABA receptors are

A

inhibitory

117
Q

What is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord

A

Glycine

118
Q

Why do strychnine and tetanus toxin result in seizures

A

they antagonize the effects of glycine on postsynaptic inhibition

119
Q

Voltage-gated ion channels are present in (3)

A

neurons, skeletal muscles and endocrine cells

120
Q

The human ether-a-go go related gene (hERG) is mostly famous for its association with

A

prolonged QT syndrome

121
Q

The hERG potassium channel is sensitive to many drugs and is responsible for sudden death from drugs that predispose the patient to

A

Torsades de point

122
Q

Downregulation

A

excess circulation concentrations of ligand often results in a decrease in the density of the target receptors in cell membranes

123
Q

Desensitization

A

waning of a physiologic response over time despite the presence of a constant stimulus

124
Q

Upregulation

A

drug-induced antagonism of receptors often results in an increased density of receptors in cell membranes (one reason most cardiac medications should be continued through perioperative period)

Advanced Physiology and Pharmacology (2 decks)

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