Exam 1 Flashcards
CH1 Properties of Life
Living organisms are: made of cells complex and ordered respond to their environments can grow and reproduce obtain and use energy allow for evolutionary adaptation
CH1 Cellular Organization
atoms –> molecules –> organelles –> cells
CH1 Organismal Organization
tissues –> organ –> organ system –> organism
CH1 Population Level
population –> species –> community –> ecosystem
CH1 Deductive Reasoning
uses known facts to make specific predictions
-outcome is a testable hypothesis
CH1 Inductive Reasoning
uses specific observations to develop general conclusions
-outcome is a testable hypothesis
CH1 The Scientific Method
observation
ask a question
form a hypothesis that answers your question
make a prediction based on your hypothesis
do an experiment to test your hypothesis
analyze results (if hypothesis is wrong, go back to step 3)
if correct, report results
CH1 Cell Theory
all living things are made of cells, and all cells come from existing cells
CH1 Molecular Basis of Inheritance
DNA encodes genes which control living organisms and are passed from one generation to the next
CH1 Structure&Function
a molecules’s structure can often tell us about its functions
CH1 Cell Info
cells store information from both DNA and the environment
CH1 Evolutionary Change
living organisms come from a common origin, diversity of life is from evolutionary change
CH1 Evolutionary Conservation
critical characteristics are passed on
CH2 All matter is composed of ___
atoms
CH2 Atoms are composed of __, __, __
protons- positively charged particles
neutrons- neutral particles
electrons- negatively charged particles
CH2 Protons and neutrons are found in the __
nucleus
CH2 Electrons are found in the __
orbitals that surround the nucleus
CH2 Atomic number
number of protons
CH2 Atoms with the same atomic number _____
have the same chemical properties and belong to the same element
CH2 Each proton and neutron have a mass of (roughly) __
1 dalton
CH2 Isotopes
atoms of the same element that have different atomic mass numbers due to different numbers of neutrons
CH2 Neutral atoms
have the same number of protons and electrons
CH2 Ions
charged atoms
CH2 Two types of ions and their charges are:
cations: positive charge (fewer electrons than protons)
anions: negative charge (more electrons than protons)
CH2 Orbitals
occur at different energy levels
can hold two electrons each
have potential energy (the further away from the nucleus, the more energy)
CH2 Oxidation
the loss of an electron
CH2 Reduction
*doesn’t mean what it sounds like it means
the gaining of an electron
CH2 The Periodic Table of Elements
arranges elements based on their atomic numbers
identifies elements based on their similar chemical properties
CH2 Naturally occurring elements
90 elements occur naturally
only 12 of these are seen in organisms in a significant amount
4 of these make up 96.3% of human body weight: C, H, O, and N
CH2 Octet Rule
atoms tend to establish full outer energy levels (8 electrons)
atoms with full outer levels are less reactive
CH2 Molecules
groups of atoms held together in stable association
held by chemical bonds
CH2 Compounds
molecules containing more than one type of element
held by chemical bonds
CH2 Valence Electrons
electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom
CH2 Chemical Reactions
depend on interactions between valence electrons of different atoms
CH2 Covalent Bonds
form when atoms share two or more valence electrons (e- sharing)
the strength of the bond depends on the number of electrons pairs shared by the atoms:
single bond < double bond (4 shared) < triple bond (6 shared)
CH2 Electronegativity
an atom’s affinity for electrons in a molecule
differences in electronegativity dictate how electrons are distributed in a covalent bond
CH2 Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
equal electron sharing
CH2 Polar Covalent Bonds
unequal sharing of electrons
CH2 Chemical reactions are influenced by:
temperature
the concentration of reactants and products
availability of a catalyst
CH2 Chemical reactions are written as __
reactants –> products
this is often reversible
CH2 Water Chemistry
the bonds between hydrogen and oxygen are highly polar in a molecule
oxygen is partially -
hydrogen is partially +
CH2 Most important property of water is ___
its ability to form hydrogen bonds
CH2 Hydrogen Bonds
weak attraction between partially negative oxygen of one molecule and the partially positive hydrogen of another water molecule
can form between two water molecules or water and another charged molecule
CH2 Water Polarity
causes water to be cohesive and adhesive
CH2 Cohesion and Adhesion
co- water molecules stick to one another through hydrogen bonding
ad- water molecules stick to other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding
CH2 Capillary Action
adhesive forces exerted by the glass exceed the cohesive force between water molecules
CH2 Properties of Water (6)
water has a high specific heat water has a high heat of vaporization solid water is less dense than liquid water is a good solvent water organizes nonpolar molecules ~hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules water can form ions
CH2 Basis of the pH scale
hydrogen
CH2 Greater hydrogen concentration =
lower pH (acidic)
CH2 Lower hydrogen concentration=
higher pH (basic)
CH2 Acid
chemical that releases hydrogen ions
CH2 Base
a chemical that accepts hydrogen ions
CH2 Buffer
a chemical that both accepts and releases H, keeping the pH mostly constant
most buffers are 1 acid + 1 base
CH2 Isomer
molecules with the same chemical formula
- structural
- geometric
- enantiomer
CH2 Biological Molecules
chiral molecules or enantiomers are non-superimposable mirror images
-hands
CH2 MEMORIZE Functional Groups
hydroxyl-polar
methyl-non polar
carbonyl-polar
carboxyl-charged, ionizes to release H, acidic
amino-charged, accepts H to make NH3, basic
phosphate-charged, ionizes to release H, acidic
sulfhydryl-polar
CH3 Monomer
single unit
CH3 Biological Molecule
often macromolecules formed from smaller subunits
CH3 Polymer
many units together
CH3 Dehydration Synthesis
formation of bonds by the removal of water
CH3 C-H Covalent Bonds
hold lots of energy
CH3 CHOs
energy transfer
storage
structural support
CH3 Disaccharides
two monosaccharides connected by dehydration synthesis
CH3 Polysaccharides
long-term polymers of sugars used for long-term energy storage most plants: starch most animals: glycogen some used for structural support plants: cellulose animals/fungi:chitin
CH3 Starch forms
amylose
amylopectin
CH3 Lipids
not soluble in water
high concentration of C-H bonds makes it hydrophobic
CH3 Lipid Categories (2)
fats (triglycerides)
phospholipids
CH3 Triglycerides
1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
for long-term energy storage
store 2x energy as CHOs
animal fats are usually saturated; solid at room temp
plant fats are usually mono/poly-unsaturated; oily/liquid at room temp
CH3 Fatty Acids
long hydrocarbon chains that can be:
saturated
unsaturated
polyunsaturated
CH3 Unsaturated, Saturated, and Trans Fats
un-‘good’, lower in calories due to molecular structures, veggies
sat-not very healthy, mostly in animal products
trans- unsaturated made slightly saturated for a higher shelf life, raises cholesterol
CH3 Phospholipids
1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, a phosphate group
polar “heads” and non polar “tails”
form lipid bilayers or micelles
CH3 Lipid Bilayers
The basis of biological membranes
“heads” towards water and “tails” towards one another
CH3 Proteins (7 functions)
polymers of amino acids functions include: enzymes/catalysts defense transport support motion regulation storage
CH3 Amino Acid Structure
central C atom surrounded by amino group carboxyl group single hydrogen variable R group (supplies characteristics)
CH3 Amino Acids
20 different amino acids
R groups all differ
almost all organisms have the same amino acids as us
commonly classified as: polar, non polar, charged, aromatic, special function
linked by dehydration synthesis by peptide bonds
CH3 Protein Shape
determines its functions
primary-sequence of AAs
secondary-interaction of groups in peptide backbone forming 3D shapes (alpha helix, beta sheet)
tertiary structure-overall 3D folded shape of polypeptide
quaternary structure-interactions between multiple polypeptide subunits (not always there)
CH3 Motifs
common elements of secondary structure
CH3 Domains
larger functional regions of a polypeptide
CH3 Denaturation
change in shape of a protein
can be partial, complete, reversible, irreversible
caused by changes in pH, temp, salt
CH3 Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
storage, transmission, and use of genetic info
polymers of nucleotides
CH3 Counting pattern for carbons in ribose and deoxyribose
far right is 1, down is 2, left is 3, up 4, up 5
CH3 DNA
nucleotides connected by phosphodeister bonds into nucleic acid strands
double helix-two connected
strands run antiparallel //
CH3 RNA
ribose instead of deoxyribose uracil instead of thymine single nucleic acid strand represents transcription of genetic info m[essenger]RNA t[ransfer]RNA and r[ibosomal]RNA direct synthesis of proteins
CH3 ATP
adenosine triphosphate
energy
CH4 Cell Theory
all organisms are made of cells
cells are the smallest unit of life
all cells come from pre-existing cells
CH4 Cell Size
as size increases, it becomes more difficult for chemicals to diffuse across the membrane
surface area-to-volume ratio: as cell size increases, the internal volume increases 10x faster than the surface area
CH4 Microscopes
Light-200nm
Electron- only 0.2nm
CH4 Cells have ___ in common (3)
genetic material (nucleoid/nucleus)
cytoplasm (semifluid matrix)
plasma/cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
CH4 Prokaryotic Cells
archaea and bacteria lack membrane-bound nucleus no membrane-bound organelles have: gen. material in nucleoid cytoplasm cell wall ribosomes
CH4 Simple Flagella in Prokaryotic Cells
rotary motion propels the cell
CH4 Eukaryotic Cells
more complex than prokaryotic cells
membrane-bound nucleus
cytoskeleton
flagella not always present, fish-tail motion when present
nucleus stores genetic material in linear chromosomes
nuclear envelope made of two phospholipid bilayers
ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis
CH4 Endomembrane System
nuclear membrane
endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
secretory vessels
CH4 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
creates network of channels throughout cytoplasm
ribosomes give rough appearance
synthesis site for proteins that will be secreted, sent to lysosomes, or to plasma membrane
CH4 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
relatively few ribosomes
synthesis of membrane lipids
calcium storage
detox of foreign substances
CH4 Golgi Apparatus
flattened stacks of interconnected membranes that pack and distribute materials to different parts of the cell
synthesis of cell wall components
CH4 Lysosomes
contain digestive enzymes
break down macromolecules
CH4 Microbodies
vesicles containing enzymes
separate from endomembrane system
glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for converting fats to carbohydrates
peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes and catalase
CH4 Vacuoles
membrane-bound organelles with various functions depending on the cell type
central (plant)
contractile (protists)
storage
CH4 Mitochondria
in all eukaryotic cells
carry their DNA in small ribosomes
smooth outer membrane and folded inner
CH4 Chloroplasts
in cells of photosynthetic eukaryotes
contain chlorophyll
surrounded by to membranes and carry DNA in small ribosomes like mitochondria
CH4 Endosymbiosis
theory that eukaryotic organelles evolved through symbiotic relationship among prokaryotic cells
one cell engulfed a second cell and a symbiotic relationship developed
mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to have evolved this way
CH4 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts both have:
two membranes
possess bacterial type DNA and ribosomes
about the size of a prok. cell
divide by fission
CH4 Cytoskeleton
network of protein fibers that are found in all euk. cells support cell shape keep organelles in fixed locations help move materials within the cells fibers include: actin-contraction microtubules-organization intermediate-structure
CH4 Cell Movement
"crawling" accomplished by actin filaments flagella undulate (fish) to move the cell cilia arranged in rows
CH4 Cilia and Flagella
similar (9+2) structure
9 pairs of microtubules surrounded by two central microtubules
euk. flagella have fishtail-like motion due to sliding of microtubules
CH4 Extracellular Structures
cell wall-plants, protists, fungi
extracellular matrix-animal
CH5 Fluid Mosaic Model
membrane consists of bilayer of phospholipids in which globular proteins are inserted
CH5 Cell Membrane Components (4)
phospholipid bilayer
transmembrane proteins
interior protein network
surface proteins
CH5 Phospholipds
the bilayers are fluid and held together by H bonding
saturated FAs make it less fluid, warm temps make it more
CH5 Membrane Proteins are:
transporters enzymes surface receptors surface identity markers cell-to-cell adhesion proteins attachments to the cytoskeleton
CH5 Peripheral Membrane Proteins
anchored to phosphilip in one layer
nonpolar domains
CH5 Transmembrane Proteins
span the lipid bilayer
CH5 Passive Transport
diffusion, high to low concentration
no energy
with the gradient
selective permeability (some things pass through membrane)
facilitated diffusion-no energy, carrier proteins bind to a molecule to facilitate passage
CH5 Osmosis
diffusion of water molecules from high to low concentration
CH5 Isosmotic Regulation
keeps cells isotonic with their environment
CH5 Hyper, Iso, and Hypotonic
hypertonic: higher solute concentration in solution
isotonic: equal
hypotonic: lower solute concentration in solution
CH5 Animal and Plant Cells and Their Environments
crenation: animal cell shrivels in hypertonic
hemolysis: cells swell/rupture in hypotonic solution
plasmolysis: crenation but in plant cells
turgidity: hemolysis in plant cells
CH5 Active Transport
requires energy and carrier proteins
uniporters-1
symporters-2 same direction
antiporters-2 different directions
CH5 Endo and Exocytosis
endo-substances move into cell
exo-out
CH5 Endocytosis
phago-takes in whole food items
pino-fluids
receptor mediated endocytosis- specific molecules taken in after binding to a receptor
CH5 Exocytosis
plants-export cell wall material
animals-secrete hormones, neurotransmitters, and digestive enzymes
CH5 Cell-to-Cell Interactions
cells identify each other from surface markers
connected by cell junctions:
tight junctions: thin sheets
anchoring junctions: connect cytoskeletons of adjacent cells
communicating junctions: allow small molecules to pass between cells
-gap junctions: animals
-plasmodesmata: plants
