Exam 1 Flashcards
Anatomical Position
the reference point for describing structures of the body in relation to each other; refers to a person standing erect with the head, eyes, and palms facing forward
Anterior (ventral)
toward the front
Posterior (dorsal)
toward the back
Superior
toward the head
Inferior
away from the head
Medial
toward the midline of the body
Lateral
away from the midline of the body
Proximal
toward the attached end of the limb, origin of the structure, or midline of the body
Distal
away from the attached end of the limb, origin of the structure, or midline of the body
Superficial
External; located close to or on the body surface
Deep
Internal; located further beneath the body surface than the superficial structures
Cervical
regional term referring to the neck
Thoracic
CHEST (THORAX) regional term referring to the portion of the body between the neck and the abdomen
Lumbar
regional term referring to the portion of the back between the abdomen and the pelvis
Plantar
the sole of the feet
Dorsal
the top surface of the feet and hands
Palmar
anterior or ventral surface of the hands
Sagittal Plane
a longitudinal line that divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sections
Frontal Plane
a longitudinal section that divides the body into anterior, and posterior parts (chest and back)
Transverse Plane
also known as the horizontal plane; an imaginary line that divides the body or any of its parts into superior and inferior sections
Arthro
joint
Bi
two
Brachium
arm
Cardio
heart
Cephalo
head
Chondro
cartilage
Costo
rib
Dermo
skin
hemo, hemat
blood
ilio
ilium; hip bone
myo
muscle
os, osteo
bone
pulmo
lung
thoraco
chest (thorax)
tri
three
Structural Levels of the Body
cells, tissues, organs, systems
tissue
made of cells
organ
made up of two or more tissues
system
organs that function together
Cardiovascular System
circulatory system; composed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood; used to move blood through the body
Blood
composed of plasma and formed elements
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
Blood Vessels
arteries, veins, capillaries that move blood around the body
Chambers of the heart
atriums and ventricles (left and right, 4 total)
Atria
the receiving chambers of the heart
Ventricle
the propulsion chambers of the heart
Heart valve
necessary to prevent backflow between atria and ventricles, and between ventricles and the pulmonary arteries and aorta
Pathway of blood through the heart
- Oxygen-poor blood coming from the body (via the veins) enters the right atrium.
- From the right atrium, it is pumped to the right ventricle, which sends it to the lungs (via the pulmonary arteries) to give off carbon dioxide and pick up fresh oxygen.
- Oxygenated blood returns to the heart (via the pulmonary veins) entering the left atrium.
- It is then pumped to the left ventricle, which pumps it through the aorta to the rest of the body (except the lungs).
Movement in the saggital plane
- divides the body into left and right sections
- movements that involve rotation about a mediolateral axis (hip or elbow) such as flexion, extension, dorsiflexion, plantarflexion
Movement in the frontal plane
- divides the body into the anterior and posterior sections
- movements that involve rotation about an anteroposterior axis occur in the frontal plane
- includes abduction and adduction (lat raises), elevation and depression (shrugs), inversion and eversion (rolling ankles)
Movement in the transverse plane
- runs horizontally, dividing the body into superior and inferior sections
- movements involve rotation around a longitudinal axis include rotation, pronation, supination, horizontal flexion, horizontal extension
multiplanar movement
circumduction and opposition are two specific actions that occur in multiple planes
- circumduction - “cone” motion - flexion, extension, abduction and adduction in a sequence (THROWING BASEBALL)
- Opposition - thumb movement specific to humans and primates
Flexion
- Movement in Sagittal Plane
- Decreases the angle between two bones
Extension
- Movement in Sagittal Plane
- Increasing the angle between two bones
Dorsiflexion
- Movement in Sagittal Plane
- Moving the top of the foot toward the shin (only at the ankle)
Plantarflexion
- Movement in Sagittal Plane
- Moving the sole of the foot downward; “pointing the toes”
Abduction
- Movement in the Frontal Plane
- Motion away from the midline of the body
Adduction
- Movement in the Frontal Plane
- Motion toward the midline of the body
Elevation
- Movement in the Frontal Plane
- Moving to a superoir position (only at the scapula)
Depression
- Movement in the Frontal Plane
- Moving to an inferior position (only at the scapula)
Inversion
- Movement in the Frontal Plane
- Lifting the medial border of the foot (only at ankle) ROLLING ANKLE
Eversion
- Movement in the Frontal Plane
- Lifting the lateral border of the foot (only at ankle) ROLLING ANKLE
Rotation
- Movement in the Transverse Plane
- Internal or external turning about the vertical axis of bone
Pronation
- Movement in the Transverse Plane
- Rotating the hand and wrist medially from the elbow (hand down)
Supination
- Movement in the Transverse Plane
- Rotating the hand and wrist laterally from the elbow (hand up)
Muscle Spindle
- Located in the muscle belly lying parallel to the fibers
- Causes a reflexive contraction (stretch reflex) in the muscle when the muscle senses a stretch force
- Simultaneously causes the antagonist to relax (reciprocal inhibition) when it senses tension
Golgi Tendon Organ
- Located between the muscle belly and its tendon
- Causes muscle inhibition when it senses tension
- tension reduced due to fatigue –> reduced GTO output –> lowers inhibitory effect –> allows muscle to increase contractile ability
Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
- contain relatively large amounts of mitochondria and are surrounded by more capillaries than fast-twitch fibers
- contract more slowly than fast twitch muscle fibers
- have lower force outputs, but are more efficient and fatigue-resistant than fast twitch muscle fibers
- Type I skeletal fiber
Fast Twitch Muscle fiber types
Type IIx, Type IIa
Type IIx
- muscle fibers contain small amount of mitochondria, have a limited capacity for aerobic metabolism, and fatigue more easily
- have considerable anaerobic capacity, are the largest and fastest, and are capable of producing the most force
Type IIa
- muscle fibers that possess speed, fatigue, and force production capabilities somewhere between type I and type IIx fibers.
- called intermediate fibers
Posterior Compartment of the Leg
-made up of the muscles that plantarflex the foot and flex the toes
-divided into the superficial posterior (gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris)
and the deep posterior (flexor hallucis longus, flexor digitorum longus, posteroir tibialis, and popliteus)
Oxygen delivery
function of cardiac output
Cardiac Output
- the quantity of blood pumped per minute
- increases due to increases in both SV and HR
- Cardiac Output (Q) =Stroke Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (HR)
Stroke Volume
- amount of blood that is pumped during each heartbeat
- increases to about 40-50% of maximal capacity, then plateaus
Oxygen Extraction
- extraction from the blood at the cellular level depends on muscle-fiber type and the availability of specialized oxidative enzymes
- slow twitch muscle fibers are specifically adapted for oxygen extraction
- aerobic production of ATP occurs in the mitochondria of the cells
- the circulatory system increases blood flow to the active muscles and decreases blood flow to non active areas. allowing a higher concentration of O2 to be extracted
Energy Systems Available During Exercise
- Phosphagen System (anaerobic)
- Anaerobic glycosis
- Aerobic glycosis
Phosphagen system
- anaerobic
- involves the breakdown of creatine phosphate and stored ATP to resynthesize ATP for immediate use
Anaerobic glycosis
involves the breakdown of glucose and glycogen to form ATP
Aerobic glycosis
- when sufficient oxygen is available, more ATP can be produced through the breakdown of carbs and fats
- fat yields more ATP than glucose
- carb metabolism requires less oxygen than fat –> body uses more glucose and less fat as intensity increases
Respiratory Exchange Ratio
- ratio of carbon dioxide produced relative to the amount of oxygen consumed
- RER = CO2/O2 consumed
- at rest RER is .75, meaning the body is burning 85% fat and 15% carbs
- as intensity increases, more carbs are burned, less fat
VO2 max
max volume of oxygen consumption
Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption
elevated oxygen consumption after exercise as cardiac output, blood pressure, and ventilation return to resting levels
Ventilatory Threshold 1
VT1 occurs as soon as blood lactate begins to accumulate and the body needs to get rid of excess CO2 through increased respiration. it is the first point at which it becomes difficult to speak
Ventilatory Threshold 2
VT2 occurs as blood lactate rapidly increases with intensity, and represents increased hyperventilation past the need to rid the body of excess CO2. known as the lactate threshold and respiratory compensation threshold/
Fast Twitch Muscle Fibers
- utilize primarily the phosphagen and anaerobic glycosis energy systems
- specialized for anaerobic metabolism
- FT motor units innervate more muscle fibers, allowing greater force production
Slow Twitch Muscle Fibers
- equipped for oxygen delivery
- high number of oxidative enzymes
- high number of mitochondria for aerobic glycosis and fatty acid oxidation
- used during low intensity, longer duration activities
- more abundant in fatigue resistant muscles (postural muscles)
Muscle Fiber distribution (slow or fast twitch)
- determined by genetics
- most people have equal percentages of FT and ST fibers
- intermediate fibers have a high capacity for both anaerobic and aerobic movements, and are adaptable based upon the training stimulus
Growth Hormone
- facilitates protein synthesis
- mediated by insulin-like growth factors
- secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
Antidiuretic Hormone
- aka vasopressin
- secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
- reduces urinary excretion of water in response to the dehydrating effects of sweat during exercise
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
- catecholamines
- secreted by the adreal medulla as part of the sympathetic response to exercise
- increases cardiac output and contractility
- stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver (glycogenolysis)
- FIGHT OR FLIGHT/ADRENALINE
Testosterone
- responsible for masculine characteristics and muscle-building effects
- secreted by the testes
Estrogen
- responsible for feminine characteristics and bone formation and maintenance
- secreted by ovaries
- may play a role in amenorrhea and the female athelete triad
Exercising in the heat
- poor hydration, overdressing, and being overweight can cause heat overload
- internal heat load is brought to skins surface to be cooled by the secretion of water by the sweat glands (evaporation)
- goal of sweat is to prevent body temp from rising more than 2 or 3 degrees F
- injuries occur when you cannot dissipate heat
Exercising in the cold
- wear several layers so that garments can be removed or replaced as needed
- allow for sweat ventilation
- wear garments that give off body heat in exercise and retain warmth during inactivity
- replace body fluids in the cold, just as in the heat
- monitor body weight over several days
- excessive loss of body heat can lead to a generalized vasoconstriction and conditions like hypothermia, frost bite, and increased blood pressure
- strong wind could attribute to accelerated heat loss
Altitude Sickness
symptoms and signs include shortness of breath, headaches, light headedness, and nausea
law of inertia
body at rest stays at rest, body in motion stays in motion, unless acted upon by an external force
law of acceleration
force acting on a body in a given direction is equal to the body’s mass multiplied by its acceleration
law of reaction
every applied force is accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction
Eccentric contraction
muscle acts as the resistive force and lengthens as it creates tension. motion is controlled by the muscle contraction. external force exceeds contractive force
Concentric contraction
muscle acts as the motive force and shortens as it creates tension. motion is created by the muscle contraction
Isometric contraction
muscle tension is created, but there is no change in length. resistance can come from opposing muscle groups, gravity, an immovable object, or weight training. motion is prevented by the contraction (inertia)
Third class levers in the body
- the motive force has a short lever arm and the resistance has a long lever arm
- motive fore muscles are at a mechanical disadvantage
- muscles typically attach near the joint creating a short lever arm, and require high forces to lift small weights
- APPLICATION: moving the same amount of weight farther from the working joint creates more resistance
Penniform Muscles
-designed for higher force production than longitudinal. fibers lie diagonal to the line of pull. allows a greater number of fibers to be packaged into a given cross-sectional area –> greater force production. Unipennate, Bipennate, Multipennate. ex: Quadriceps
Longitudinal Muscles
long and thin muscles with parallel fibers that run in the same direction as the length of the muscle. allows for speed of contraction. force of contraction is small.
Agonist muscle (motion)
muscle that causes a desired motion (prime mover)
antagonist muscle (motion)
a muscle that has the potential to oppose the action of the agonist
synergist muscles (motion
assist the agonist in causing a desired action
co-contraction
the agonist and antagonist contract together to help stabilize a joint.
Center of gravity
the point at which a body’s mass is concentrated and balanced on all sides in all planes; the point where gravity is enacting its constant downward pull
Base of support (gravity)
the area beneath the body that is encompassed when one continuous line connects all points of the body that are in contact with the ground.
Hip External rotator
six external rotators; when the hip is in extension, the gluteus maximus functions as an external rotator
Anterior knee muscles: knee extensors
primary movers: quadriceps femoris
- act concentrically when getting up from a chair or squat
- act eccentrically when moving from standing to sitting
- strengthening exercises include squats and lunges; helpful for activities of daily living
Anterior leg muscles: dorsiflexors
prime movers: anterior compartment muscles
- act concentrically to dorsiflex ankle
- act eccentrically during locomotor activities to lower the foot to the ground with control
- important to warm up anterior compartment muscles before impact activities
Posterior leg muscles: plantarflexors
prime movers: superficial posterior compartment muscles
- the muscles of the deep posterior compartment and lateral tibial compartment aid in the propulsion force for human locomotion
- inflexibility is common in the soleus and gastrocnemius
- to stretch gastrocnemius the hip and knee should be extended and the foot dorsiflexed
Lordosis
excessive anterior curvature of the spine that typically occurs at the low back, but may also occur at the neck
- associated with low back pain, large concentrations of abdominal fat, and an anterior pelvic tilt (causing tight hip flexors and erector spinae and weak hip extensors and abdominals)
- to address anterior pelvic tilt, exercises should focus on strengthening the abs and hip extensors, stretching the hip flexors, and spine extensors
Shoulder joint complex
four separate upper extremity segments refer to the coordinated function of the -sternoclavicular (S/C) joint -acromioclavicular (A/C joint) -glenohumeral (G/H) joint -Scapulothoracic (S/T) joint ^AKA Shoulder Girdle
Posterior shoulder girdle muscles
trapezius, rhomboids, and levator scapulae
-divided into three sections (upper, middle, and lower)
Carbohydrates
bodys preferred energy source
- 4kcal/gram
- made up of chains of sugars
- monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides (3 or more glucose molecules)
Protein
functions include formation of the brain, nervous system, blood, muscles, skin, and hair
- transport mechanism for iron, vitamins, minerals, fats, and O2
- acid-base fluid balance
- 4 kcal/gram
- made of amino acids joined together through peptide bonds
- 8-10 essential amino acids must be consumed in diet
Fat
most energy dense macronutrient
- 9 kcal/gram
- functions include insulation, cell structure, nerve transmission, vitamin absorption, and hormone production
- stored in the body as tryglycerides
- intake should consist of mostly unsaturated fatty acids, emphasizing omega-3 fatty acids
- omega-3 and omega-6 are essential fatty acids that cannot be produced in the body
- saturated and trans fat lead to the clogging of the arteries, increased risk for heart disease, and many other problems
cholesterol
many important functions including cell membrane structure, making bile acids essential for fat absorption, metabolizing fat-soluble vitamins, making vitamin D
- produced in the body and consumed in the diet
- too much causes health problems
High-density lipoprotein (HDL)
good cholesterol that helps rid the body of excess cholesterol
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
bad cholesterol that clogs arteries
Vitamins
organic, non caloric micronutrients essential for normal physiological function
-must be consumed as part of food intake except for vitamin K, biotin, and vitamin D
how many essential vitamins are there
13
water soluble vitamins
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, folate, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, biotin, and vitamin C
fat soluble vitamins
vitamins A, D, E, K
Choline
quasi-vitamin that plays a critical role in neurotransmitter and platelet function and helps prevent alzheimers disease
Iron
found in meats, organ meats, and legumes
-functions include hemoglobin formation, improves blood quality, increases resistance to stress and disease
Resting metabolic rate
the number of calories needed to fuel ventilation, blood circulation, and temperature regulation
-determined via the Mifflin-st. Jeor equation
insights from the national weight control registry about successful weight loss
- control portions
- be mindful
- exercise
- check the scale
- eat breakfast
- monitor intake
- turn off the tube
- do not wait until tomorrow to start, and no cheating
- know thy friend
- be optimistic
weight loss (1 lb a week)
decrease of 500kcal/day
3,500 kcal/week
Fluid Hydration guidelines
use thirst to determine fluid needs
- aim for 1:1 ratio of fluid replacement to fluid lost in sweat
- drink fluids with sodium during prolonged exercise sessions
- drink carbohydrate containing sports drinks to reduce fatigue
Diabetes
results from abnormal regulation of blood glucose
Type 1 diabetes
inability of the pancreas to secrete sufficient amounts of insulin
Type 2 diabetes
cells have a decreased ability to respond to the action of insulin
Osteoporosis
reduced density and weakening of bones
- nutrition for prevention and treatment includes adequate calcium and vitamin D intake
- weightbearing physical activity is important in maintaining bone density and reducing the risk of osteoporosis
- sedentary lifestyle and smoking increase the risk.
Acute responses to exercise
- going from rest to exercise requires the circulatory and respiratory systems to increase oxygen delivery. to meet the increased demands of the muscles, blood flow redistributes from inactive organs to active skeletal muscles, and cardiac output increases
- heart rate is controlled intrinsically by the sinoatrial node (SA Node), and extrinsically by the nervous and endocrine systems
- changes in heart rate are influenced by the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Inherent rhythm of the heart
inherent rhythm of the heart is about 100 bpm; can be innately stimulated via spontaneous depolarization and repolarization of the SA node
-impulses that originate at the SA node spread to the atrioventricular node (AV node) causing the atria to contract together, then the ventricles contract together
Blood pressure during exercise
Systolic > diastolic
due to
-increased contractility of the heart
-increased stroke volume
-need for greater force and pressure to deliver blood to exercising muscles
-vasodilation within the exercising muscle, which results in more blood draining from the arteries, through arterioles, and into muscle capillaries
Blood distribution during exercise
blood volume is affected by hydrostatic pressure of a muscle contraction, accumulation of metabolites and sweat.
-blood preserves blood volume during exercise by offsetting the small decrease in stroke volume by increasing heart rate (steady state), increasing vasoconstriction in non-working muscles to maintain peripheral resistance and blood pressure, and releasing vasopressin and aldosterone to reduce water and sodium loss
catecholamines
epinephrine and norepinephrine
- increase cardiac contractility, leading to increased cardiac output
- vasoconstriction of non-working muscles increases total peripheral resistance, causing an increase in systolic blood pressure
- ensure blood glucose maintenance during exercise and return blood glucose levels post workout
epinephrine
- dilates respiratory passages and reduces digestive activity and bladder emptying
- stimulates the mobilization of stored carbohydrates and fats, the production and release of glycogen, and glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle
- promotes lipolysis
- alerts central nervous system of impending stressors
thermoregulation in heat
thermal receptors signal the hypothalamus that core temperature is rising, which directs the nervous system to sweat and increase blood flow to the skin
- while four mechanisms are used to give off heat, evaporation is the major contributor during exercise
- 4 mechanisms include (excretion/lungs, radiation, conduction and convection, evaporation)
Heat acclimation
adaptations can take place as early as 9-14 days
includes
-increased plasma volume
-decreased heart rate and core temperature
-increased sweat rate
Neural changes
more significant as a result of resistance training than aerobic training
- occur in the early part of a strength training program (1-3 weeks) before muscle hypertrophy occurs
- motor-unity recruitment and synchronization –> all or none principle - when activated, all muscle fibers in a motor unit contract maximally
General adaptation syndrome
- shock or alarm phase (1-3 wks) includes fatigue, weakness, and soreness, soon experiences gains attributed to neuromuscular adaptations
- adaptation or resitance phase (4-6 wks) - major muscular adaptations (biochemical, mechanical, and structural); progressive increases in size and muscle
- exhaustion phase (anytime) inadequate repair or recovery time leads to burnout, overtraining, reduction or elimination of overload, injury, illness, or lack of adherence
Principle of specificity
the exercise response to any training program is specific to the mode and intensity of training
Principle of overload and progression
overload involves increasing the load on the tissue or system above and beyond the normal load. progression is the systematic process of applying overload
Principle of diminishing returns
the rate of fitness improvement diminishes over time as an individuals fitness approaches its ultimate genetic potential
Principle of reversibility
when training ceases, all gains will return to pre-training levels and may possibly decrease to the point where they are only supporting the demands of daily use
Autogenic inhibition
activation of a Golgi tendon organ (GTO) inhibits muscle spindle response (static stretching Golgi tendon causes muscle to relax)
reciprocal inhibition
activating the muscle on one side (agonist) coincides with neural inhibition of the opposing muscle on the other side of the joint (antagonist) to facilitate movement
static stretching
involves moving the joints to place the targeted muscle group in an end-range position and holding that position for up to 30 seconds
- most effective post workout
- holding the stretch for 15-30 seconds appears most effective for range of motion
Dynamic stretching
used to warm up the muscles
