Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
smallest functional unit of organization
A
cells
2
Q
Human cells are
A
eukaryotic
3
Q
Cells also have
A
other membrane-bound organelles
4
Q
Cells combine to form
A
tissues
5
Q
Cell structure and organelles are based on
A
the function of the cell
6
Q
Cells have
A
plasma membranes, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes/peroxisomes/proteasomes, and cytoskeletal components
7
Q
How much of body water is made up of intracellular fluid?
A
2/3
8
Q
How much of the 1/3 of body water is made up of interstitial fluid?
A
3/4
9
Q
How much of the 1/3 of body water is made up of plasma?
A
1/4
10
Q
What makes up the extracellular compartment?
A
interstitial fluid and plasma
11
Q
Intracellular and extracellular fluid is very
A
different
12
Q
Plasma and interstitial fluid is very
A
similar
13
Q
Intracellular fluid is _____ proteins, _____ sodium, and ______ in potassium
A
higher, lower, higher
14
Q
Extracellular fluid is _____ proteins, _____ sodium, and ______ in potassium
A
lower, higher, lower
15
Q
The boundary between interstitial fluid and plasma is
A
not very selective.
16
Q
The plasma membrane is made up of a
A
phospholipid bilayer
17
Q
Plasma membrane is
A
selectively permeable
18
Q
What are the functions of proteins?
A
receptors, channels/carriers, enzymes, anchors, and for recognition (antigens)
19
Q
What allows proteins to move along the bilayer
A
cholesterol
20
Q
What extracellular molecules can bind to plasma membrane receptors
A
hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters
21
Q
What are the signal transduction pathways?
A
g-proteins, enzymes, and ion channels
22
Q
What is the name for something that binds to a receptor?
A
ligand
23
Q
Where is a signal from the ligand attaching to a receptor processed?
A
inside of the cell (transduction)
24
Q
What nucleotide is used in the g-protein linked receptor?
A
Guanine
25
Explain the process associated with g-protein linked receptors
A ligand binds to the g-protein receptor. Then ATP is catalyzed and forms cAMP. cAMP is a second messenger. The second messenger leads to the cell response.
26
How many amino acids are there?
20
27
What is mutated in multiple myeloma?
the tyrosine kinase which causes overgrowth of B-cells
28
Explain the process associated with enzyme linked receptors?
The growth hormone binds to the tyrosine kinase receptor. These creates an internal cellular response.
29
What is an ion?
an atom that either gains an electron or loses one and becomes charged either positively or negatively.
30
Explain the process associated with ion-channel linked receptors
A ligand binds to the receptor which opens an aqueous channel that allows ions to flow across the membrane.
31
When is ion-channel linked receptors used?
neuron conduction and muscle contraction
32
What type of molecules can freely pass through the membrane?
lipid-soluble
33
What are the types of passive transport?
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
34
Does passive transport require ATP?
no
35
Can water-soluble molecules cross freely through membranes?
No, they require either active or passive transport.
36
What are the types of vesicular transport?
endocytosis and exocytosis
37
The inside of a cell is more ____ charged than the outside.
negatively
38
Active transport requires
ATP
39
What is diffusion?
movement of molecules from a high concentration gradient to a lower gradient
40
____ and ____ accelerate diffusion
larger gradients and heat
41
With diffusion, there is no net movement once the two concentrations become
equal
42
What is osmosis?
Diffusion of water toward higher solute concentration
43
Water is ____
polar
44
In the body, ___, ___, ____, and ___ bind to water
sodium, glucose, urea, and proteins
45
Wherever sodium, glucose, proteins, and urea goes,__
water follows
46
Isotonic solution
means equal concentration
47
Hypotonic solution
more water flows into the cell and can lead to lysis of the cell
48
Hypertonic solution
more solutes are outside of the cell therefore drawing water out of the cell
49
Crenate means
to shrink
50
What type of diffusion is needed for molecules that are too large to go through channel proteins?
Facilitated diffusion
51
How does facilitated diffusion work?
Molecules bind to receptor site on the carrier protein. Then the protein changes shape and the molecules pass through.
52
Each receptor site is highly ____.
specific
53
Why do diabetics have glucose in their urine?
The number of receptors for glucose has been used so the excess is peed out.
54
There is a ___ number of receptors on a cell.
finite
55
What are the cases for active transport?
electrical, chemical, and electrochemical
56
About how much of resting ATP is spent on Na/K pump?
40%
57
What is the primary example of active transport?
Na/K pump
58
In active transport what happens?
Sodium and potassium are moved against concentration gradients. This creates and maintains electrical gradient across the cell membrane.
59
Calcium inside of the cell is ____ if it is not in the ER.
lethal
60
What is secondary active transport?
The gradient that was established by the sodium is used to transport a second substrate.
61
A symporter (cotransport) moves the substrate in the _____ direction that the sodium is transported.
same
62
A countertrasnporter (antiporter) moves the substrate in the _____ direction that the sodium is transported.
opposite
63
The secondary active transport uses the ____ from the primary active transport.
potential energy
64
What is vesicular transport?
When a cell membrane extends around material and internalizes it. It forms a vesicle..
65
What is endocytosis?
when a cell membrane extends around material and internalizes it
66
Vesicles can fuse with ___ for chemical breakdown.
lysosomes
67
What is exocytosis?
When vesicles fuse with cell membrane and externalize material.
68
Exocrine and endocrine glands
secretions
69
How many membranes do mitochondria's have?
two; inner and outer
70
The vast majority of ATP production occurs where?
mitochondria
71
Where is O2 and CO2 produced?
mitochondria
72
Mitochondria have DNA that is inherited by___
our mothers
73
What are cristae?
folds found in mitochondria to increase surface area
74
What is the purpose of cellular respiration?
Converts non-usable energy in organic compounds to usable energy. Organic molecules are oxidized to harvest electrons.
75
What are the harvested electrons in cellular respiration used for?
to phosphorylated ADP into ATP.
76
What happens during glycolysis?
In the cytoplasm, a organic molecule (such as glucose) is transported to the cell. Glucose is then trapped, split, and oxidized. The electrons are taken from glucose by NAD's and they become NADH. As a result of glycosis, glucose becomes 2 pyruvates, 2 NADH's and 2 ATP's (net)
77
What happens when the pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondria?
Pyruvate has more electrons taken from it and it is oxidized even further. This is the Krebs cycle. As one pyruvate goes through the process, the carbon dioxide molecules are given off as waste and exhaled from the body. Then the electrons go to the electron transport chain (ETC).
78
Does there have to be oxygen present for the Kreb's Cycle to happen?
yes
79
What happens if there is not enough oxygen in the body after glycolysis occurs?
Glycolysis will continue but the pyruvates cannot be transported into the mitochondria without oxygen so there will be a build up of lactic acid.
80
What happens at the electron transport chain?
NAD and FAD deliever the electrons and the electrons go to the carriers. They are transported as hydrogens. As the electrons are passed along on the carriers, protons (H+) are pushed into the space between the two mitochondrial membranes. This creates a gradient. This creates a potential energy in which ATPS are created. This is called oxidative phosphorylation. The final recipient of the carriers is oxygen. When the electrons reach the oxygen molecules they join together and form water. As a result, 32 ATP's are generated.
81
Membrane potentials are important in what type of tissues?
Excitable: muscle, heart, neurons, and some glands
82
Electrical gradient is the same as
polarity
83
Membrane potentials are created by ____ and the presence of _____ in ICF.
Na+/K+ ATPases, proteins
84
Stimulation of cell results in reversal of polarity. This is called ____.
depolarization
85
If depolarization is sufficient then_____
it spreads along the membrane
86
Action potential leads to____
concentration, nerve impulse, etc.
87
The inside of the cell is _____ charged compared to the outside. The charge is ____.
negatively, -70mV
88
Resting potential is expressed as ___ compared to ____.
ICF, ECF
89
Muscles have to be ____ in order to contract.
stimulated
90
Local changes in membrane potential result from:
neuron stimulation/inhibition, temperature, light, pressure, etc.
91
What causes action potential
the opening/closing of specific ion channels
92
What causes depolarization of the cell membrane
Sodium channels open and the sodium flows inside the cell and the cell becomes depolarized.
93
What causes the repolarization of a depolarized cell membrane?
After sodium fills the inside of the cell, potassium channels open and potassium moves out of the cell into the extracellular space.
94
Membrane potential changes ____ along the cell membrane.
propagate or move
95
Depolarization to a threshold potential results in an ____.
action potential
96
Cells and extracellular matrix combine to form
tissues
97
Tissues combine to form
organs
98
What are the tissue types?
epithelium, connective, muscle, and nervous
99
An organ is a combination of ______.
at least two different types of tissues
100
What type of tissues cover body surfaces and linings of cavities and hollow organs?
epithelium
101
Is epithelium vascular or avascular?
avascular (no blood vessels)
102
Epithelium cells have a high degree of _____.
regeneration
103
Epithelium tissue makes up _____ of the cancers.
most
104
Epithelium provides:
protection, permeability, and often secretes substances onto exposed surface (glandular epithelium)
105
Some epithelium layers have _____.
microvilli or cilia
106
How does epithelial cells get their nutrients?
from diffusion from below the surface
107
What is mitosis?
the division of DNA and then the splitting of cells
108
Glandular epithelium makes up the most of the _____.
common cancer
109
What is the purpose of microvilli?
increase surface area
110
What is the purpose of cilia?
to move things
111
What are the different shapes of epithelial cells?
squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and transitional
112
What are the layers of epithelial cells?
simple, stratified, pseudostratified
113
What is the apical surface?
the exposed surface
114
Where is transitional epithelium located?
in the urinary tract
115
Where is pseudostratified tissues found?
the respiratory tract
116
Simple squamous epithelium is the ____ layer.
thinnest
117
Where are squamous epithelium located?
ventral body cavities, lining heart and blood vessels, portions of kidney tubules, alveoli
118
What are the functions of squamous epithelium?
reduces friction, controls vessel permeability, performs absorption and secretion
119
Where are cuboidal epithelium located?
glands, ducts, portions of kidney tubules, and thyroid glands
120
What are the functions of cuboidal epithelium tissues?
limited protection, secretions, and absorption
121
One way to tell the difference between columnar epithelial and pseudostratified ciliated columnar is _____.
the location of the nuclei; pseudostratified nuclei are at different levels whereas simple columnar epithelial, the nuclei are at the same level
122
Where are simple columnar epithelium located?
lining of stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys
123
What are the functions of simple columnar epithelium located?
protection, secretion, and absorption
124
Where is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelia cells located?
lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi, and portions of male reproductive tract
125
Stratified squamous epithelial is found where?
surface of skin, lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus and vagina
126
What is the function of stratified squamous?
provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attacks
127
What is the function of transitional epithelial cells?
permits expansion and recoil after stretching
128
Connective tissue is _____.
the most abundant, most diverse, and most complex
129
Matrices are comprised of ____ and _____.
ground substance and proteins (usually fibers)
130
What are the types of ground substance?
liquid, solid, or gel
131
What are the different types of fibers?
collagen, reticular, or elastic
132
What are the different types of connective tissues?
connective tissue proper, fluid connective tissues, supporting connective tissues
133
What are the three types of muscles?
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
134
All muscles ____. This produces movement.
contracts (shorten)
135
What are the contractile proteins of muscle?
actin and myosin
136
How are the contractile proteins regulated?
troponin and tropomyosin
137
What are the characteristics of skeletal muscles?
moves the skeleton, moves eye, moves voluntary sphincters, long, multinucleate cells, actin/myosin produce striations, stimulated by somatic motor neuron-voluntary control
138
What are the characteristics of smooth muscles?
walls of hollow organs (except heart), produce organ movement or contraction, short, uninucleate cells, no sarcomeres, stimulated by autonomic neurons or hormones of others
139
What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle?
present only in heart, short, branched, uninucleate cells, connected by intercalated discs, actin/myosin produce striations, stimulated by conduction systems
140
Where the branches are attached is called____.
intercalated disc
141
The spaces between the intercalated disc?
gap junctions
142
What is the purpose of gap junctions?
allows neighboring intercellular fluids to communicate
143
Nervous tissue is composed of ____.
neurons and neuroglia (glia)
144
Nervous tissue makes up ____.
central and peripheral nervous systems
145
If neuron sends information away from the CNS is ___ or ____ neuron.
efferent, motor
146
If neuron sends information to the CNS is ___ or ____ neuron.
afferent, sensory
147
Unipolar
all somatic sensory and visceral sensory neurons
148
Bipolar
some special sensory neurons
