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PSY 760 > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What separates intracellular and extracellular fluids?

A

neuronal membrane

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2
Q

How does a cell/neuron function and look like at rest?

A

At rest, a cell/neuron functions like a battery, and different distributions of chemicals in the intracellular and extracellular fluids are what allows it to do this. These fluids are mostly water, but also have sodium, calcium, chloride, and potassium. Each chemical has its own ion channels.

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3
Q

What is in INTRAcellular fluid?

A
  1. High amounts of K+ and negatively charged anions
  2. Low amounts of Na+, Cl-, and Ca2+
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4
Q

What is in EXTRAcellular fluid?

A
  1. Low amount of potassium and negatively charged anions 2. High amounts of sodium, chloride, and calcium
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5
Q

How is the neuronal membrane organized?

A

Made up of bilayer of phospholipid molecules:

  1. Phosphate heads are attracted to water and face outward, near water/fluid
  2. Glyceride fatty tails are repelled by water and aggregate toward the interior
  3. On this membrane, there are transmembrane proteins that extend exterior to interior. These act as ion channels, or gates that allow particles to pass in and out of the nerve cell
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6
Q

Explain how selective permeability works in the neuronal membrane.

A
  1. Partial permeability to potassium (K+), aka some potassium channels are open
  2. Low permeability to sodium (Na+), aka sodium channels are mostly closed (sodium prevented from moving)
  3. This creates separation of charge so that the inside is negative compared to the outside
  4. This selective permeability is important, because diffusion force will want to move sodium in, as ions move from high concentration and diffuse to low concentration, but the permeability means only a small amount can. Diffusion force will also want to move potassium out, but electrostatic force will want to pull it in, so it will reach equilibrium
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7
Q

Why are the passive and active transport systems of the neuronal membrane important?

A

these transport systems maintain the separation of charge, because it helps maintain the cell’s resting potential/prepare for action potential

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8
Q

Explain the sodium potassium pump.

A

sodium-potassium pump (active transport)

  • pumps 3 sodium ions out for every 2 potassium ions it pumps in, which helps maintain the negative internal charge (goes against the direction the ions would want to move by diffusion)
  • 1/3 of neuron’s ATP/cell’s energy supply
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9
Q

What three distinct kinds of electrical changes from the resting potential (two subthreshold, one suprathreshold) can occur in a neuron?

A
  1. Graded Potentials: EPSP and IPSP 2. Action Potential
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10
Q

Describe the ion movements involved with IPSP.

A
  1. Cell becomes MORE negative inside than at rest – hyperpolarization 2. Can get IPSP by opening of potassium channels, potassium flows OUT due to diffusion force
  2. Can also open chloride channels, chloride flows IN because it is negatively charged
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11
Q

Describe the ion movements with EPSP.

A
  • cell becomes LESS negative inside than at rest – depolarization
  • opening of Na+ channels => Na+ flows into the cell
  • Positive charge flowing in causes cell to become less negative
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12
Q

Describe the action potential.

A
  • Occurs at a certain level of excitation, no longer graded
  • sudden, rapid reversal of charge so that the inside becomes positive relative to the outside
  • NA+ and K+ are major players – their channels are voltage gated, or opened and closed by changes in membrane voltage.
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13
Q

In synaptic transmission, what sequence of events occurs between the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic terminal of one neuron and the production of a postsynaptic potential in a receiving neuron?

A
  1. Action potential invades terminal -> depolarization of terminal
  2. Opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ influx into terminal
  3. Exocytosis–fusion of vesicles with presynaptic membrane and release of neurotransmitter
  4. Binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic receptors —->

opening of ion channels ——>

depolarization (EPSP) OR hyperpolarization (IPSP) in postsynaptic cell

  1. Current spreads over membrane to axon hillock
  2. Deactivation of neurotransmitter
  3. Reuptake and recycling of byproducts
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14
Q

What are the two major mechanisms for termination or deactivation of the effects of a neurotransmitter?

A
  1. Degradation- transmitter rapidly broken down and thus inactivated by a special enzyme 2. Reuptake – transmitter molecules are cleared from the synaptic cleft by being taken up into the presynaptic terminal. Special receptors for the specific transmitter, called transporters, are located on the presynaptic axon terminal and bring the transmitter back inside, where transmitter molecules are repackaged into newly formed synaptic vesicles.
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15
Q

Give an example of degradation.

A

Example: acetylcholine is inactivated by an enzyme called AChE or acetylcholinesterase, which breaks acetylcholine down into choline and acetic acid, and these are recycled to make more acetylcholine in the axon terminal.

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16
Q

Give an example of drug interference with degradation.

A

Drug interference: Nerve gas/Sarin acts by blocking activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), keeping acetylcholine from breaking down. This means there is too much acetylcholine in the synapse that continues to activate the postsynaptic cell, so that muscles are unable to relax. This interferes with breathing, diaphragm can’t relax to breath out, and you can die of suffocation.

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17
Q

What are some examples of NTs whose activity is terminated by reuptake?

A

norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin

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18
Q

What is an example of a drug interfering with NT reuptake?

A
  • cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine by blocking dopamine transporters from transporting dopamine back into the terminal
  • Dopamine left in the synaptic cleft
  • Dopamine keeps activating the post synaptic cell, prolonging the effects of dopamine, the result is a strong stimulatory effect – euphoria.
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19
Q

Describe structure of ionotropic (fast) transmission?

A
  1. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor and causes change in the shape of the receptor, which opens or closes the channel, so binding directly opens or closes an ion channel

(Receptor protein and ion channel are the same structure)

  1. Channel is chemically-gated – controlled by whether or not the neurotransmitter is bound
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20
Q

Describe the function of ionotropic (fast) transmission.

A
  • transmission is able to be really rapid due to same structure.
  • Present in the nervous system where you need this rapid transmission.
  • Fast, local effects in specific area of membrane
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21
Q

Give an example of ionotropic (fast) transmission.

A

ionotropic receptors are in the neuromuscular junction/on muscles and related to reflexes. Nicotinic Acetylcholine receptors…excitatory effect from sodium passing through that leads to muscle contractions

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22
Q

Describe the structure of metabotropic (slow) transmission.

A
  • Metabotropic receptors = G-protein coupled receptors
  • binding of neurotransmitter activates G protein associated with that receptor
  • G protein splits and either activates ion channel OR activates enzymes in membrane which make second messengers
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23
Q

Describe the function of metabotropic (slow) transmission.

A

can have long lasting, far reaching effects on postsynaptic cell 1. Can alter gene expression

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24
Q

Give an example of metabotropic (slow) transmission.

A

dopamine and norepinephrine are examples of metabotropic receptors

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25
Q

What is the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and what is its function?

A
  • BBB = protective structure anywhere there are blood vessels near the brain
  • prevents substances in blood from entering the brain/CNS, such as viruses
  • BBB makes the delivery of drugs to the brain more difficult, because anything that does get into the brain must be lipid soluble or have a transport mechanism
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26
Q

What two primary structural characteristics provide for this blood-brain barrier?

A
  1. Brain capillaries have tight junctions between endothelial cells to keep large molecules out, unlike capillaries in the rest of the body
  2. Secondary barrier is provided by glial cells called astrocytes that sit beneath the blood vessel and prevent passage
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27
Q

What is the significance of the blood brain barrier with respect to systematically administered heroin and morphine?

A

Heroine is made to be lipid soluble so that it can cross the BBB quickly and rapidly enters the brain. Heroine is derived from morphine, but it penetrates the BBB faster.

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28
Q

What is the significance of the blood brain barrier with respect to systematically administered L-dopa and dopamine?

A

L-DOPA is converted to dopamine by DOPA decarboxylase. L-DOPA is given to treat Parkinson’s because it can cross the blood brain barrier more readily than dopamine

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29
Q

What primary reinforcement pathway is activated by all major drugs of abuse?

A
  • mesolimbic pathway
  • All addictive drugs produce increases in DA activity => thought to mediate rewarding effects of drugs
  • DA is also released in this pathway in response to natural rewards
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30
Q

What is the anatomy of the mesolimbic pathway?

A
  • midbrain —-> nucleus accumbens in the forebrain
  • dopamine cell bodies are in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and their axons extend to the nucleus accumbens.
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31
Q

What is the neurochemistry of the mesolimbic pathway?

A
  • Drugs of addiction act similarly in this pathway but they act on different “levels.”
  • Cocaine acts on level of nucleus accumbens by blocking dopamine reuptake transporters in the accumbens.
  • Alcohol, nicotine, heroine, act on pathway by binding to receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and stimulating dopamine neurons.
  • You can block dopamine receptors in the mesolimbic pathway to block drug reward, but also blocks natural reinforcers like food.
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32
Q

What is tolerance?

A

Tolerance is decreased sensitivity to a drug as a result of repeated exposure. Need more to produce same effect. Occurs because body develops physiological adaptations to the drug to reduce its affect, because the body is good at maintaining homeostasis

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33
Q

What is functional tolerance?

A

Adaptive changes in neurons which result in decreased sensitivity to a drug

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34
Q

What is an example of functional tolerance?

A

EXAMPLE: drinking alcohol leads to chronic depression of activity at NMDA receptors, so the brain responds by increasing the number of NMDA receptors (upregulates). As a result, if you drink the same amount, you’ll be less intoxicated

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35
Q

What is metabolic tolerance?

A

The body adapts to get better at metabolizing/getting rid of a drug. This primarily occurs in the liver so that less of the drug gets to the brain.

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36
Q

What is an example of metabolic tolerance?

A
  • repeated exposure to alcohol increases liver enzyme called ADH, which converts alcohol to acetaldehyde
  • need to drink more to achieve same effect.
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37
Q

What is the axial section of the brain?

A
  • looking down on top of someone’s brain that has been cut into upper (dorsal) and lower (ventral) halves
  • different than spinal cord, where dorsal is back, ventral is front, because this allows for comparison across species, as most animals don’t walk upright
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38
Q

What is the sagittal section of the brain?

A

cut brain into right and left halves and view from side

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39
Q

What is the coronal/front section?

A

as if you cut off someone’s face, or are viewing brain from front (can also be viewing from back)

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40
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

Exocytosis is the process by which a synaptic vesicle fuses with the presynaptic terminal membrane to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

41
Q

Neurons that release _______ are said to be cholinergic.

A

acetylcholine

42
Q

Describe the functions of acetylcholine in the PNS.

A
  • muscular control
  • parasympathetic activity of major organs, e.g. heart
43
Q

Describe the function of acetylcholine in the CNS.

A

In the CNS, has to do with memory and cognition. Loss of cholinergic produces cognitive deficits (e.g. memory loss in Alzheimer’s)

44
Q

Explain how acetylcholine is formed.

A

Acetylcholine is formed when ChAT puts choline and acetyl CoA together, and it is stored in vesicles in the terminal, released by exocytosis, and binds to receptors in the post synaptic cell

45
Q

Name a drug that interferes with the process of exocytosis in the cholinergic system and describe specifically how the drug does that and the functional consequence.

A

Nerve gas, or Sarin, keeps acetylcholine from getting broken down by blocking activity of acetylcholinesterase. Too much acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors in the synapse continues to activate the postsynaptic cell, so muscles are unable to relax. Can cause heart rate and blood pressure to drop, and interferes with breather, because diaphragm can’t relax to breath out.

46
Q

What is Excitotoxicity?

A

Excitotoxicity or neurotoxic cell death occurs when there is excessive glutamate activity that produces so much overstimulation that it kills neurons

47
Q

Name a disorder or condition in which excitotoxicity produces neuronal damage and the receptor mechanism by which the excitotoxic cell death is mediated.

A
  • Excitotoxicity is involved in Alzheimer’s and Parkinsons, where you see cell death and loss of neural tissue.
  • NMDA receptors allow sodium and calcium into the cell when glutamate binds with them (initiaties plasticity)
  • NMDA receptors are also responsible for excitoplasticity when they are overstimulated by glutamate.
  • Memantine is an NMDA receptor antagonist that is used to prevent excitotoxic cell death by partially blocking NMDA receptors (so it prevents overstimulation of NMDA receptors by glutamate).
48
Q

Describe how the function of voltage-gated sodium channels is altered by tetrodotoxin (TTX).

A

tetrodotoxin (TTX) is produced in the ovaries of puffer fish. It blocks voltage gated sodium channels so that sodium can’t pass, which prevents the production of action potentials. This has the potential to shut down the nervous system (paralysis), and if enough is ingested, it can be fatal.

49
Q

Describe how the function of voltage-gated sodium channels is altered by lidocaine.

A

Lidocaine (and local anesthetics like Novocain) block sodium channels and therefore prevent action potentials in pain fibers.

50
Q

Describe how the function of voltage-gated sodium channels is altered by generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures.

A

generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures affects infants. Febrile means induced by fever. There is a mutation in a sodium channel gene that makes the sodium channel not function properly. The sodium channel inactivates too slowly and prolongs action potential, producing seizures. This is a sodium channelopothy.

51
Q

Describe methadone’s receptor mechanism of action

A

Receptor mechanism- Methadone is used to treat heroine addiction because it is an opiod receptor agonist, meaning that it stimulates the same receptors as heroine.

52
Q

Describe how the pharmacokinetics of methadone (specifically its route of administration and rate of elimination) differ from heroin and thus influence its treatment efficacy.

A
  • Route of administration: Methadone is administered orally, so the onset of its effects is slower than heroine
  • Rate of elimination: also eliminated from the body more slowly than heroine, it has a longer half-life. This creates a more stable condition in which the person can actually function/is less of an intense high
53
Q

Describe the major neuropathology associated with (a) Parkinson’s disease.

A
  • degeneration of dopamine-containing cells in the substantia nigra that project to the basal ganglia (caudate nucleus and putamen = striatum)/loss of dopamine input to basal ganglia
  • Cell bodies of dopamine neurons in substantia nigra degenerate.
  • Symptoms appear after extensive cell death
  • leads to decreased movement.
54
Q

Describe the major neuropathology associated with Huntington’s Disease.

A
  • Huntington’s also has to do with degeneration of basal ganglia (caudate nucleus and putamen = striatum)
  • Excessive, uncontrolled movement
  • Enlargement of lateral ventricles, caused by atrophy of caudate nucleus and putamen
  • Destroy circuits that normally inhibit movement (tonic inhibition)
  • Shrunken cortical gyri, enlarged sulci
55
Q

Explain the function of the basal ganglia.

A

Basal ganglia (so the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus) are involved with motor cortex, regulate movement. Problems with these structurs can lead to either disorders with decreased movement, or disorders with excessive/uncontrollable movement

56
Q

What is the structure in blue? in purple? in pink?

A

blue = midbrain

  • Second major division of the brain
  • Take cerebellum off, see 4 lumps of tissue = tectum
    • Superior colliculus
      • Visual information
    • Inferior colliculus
      • auditory information
  • good source of DA neurons (substantia nigra)

purple = pons (metencephalon)

  • How cerebellum connected to rest of the brain
  • Cranial nerves enter and exit by pons
  • REM sleep

pink = medulla (myelencephalon)

  • Responsible for autonomic reflexes, heart rate, breathing,

*all structures make up the brain stem/hindbrain

57
Q

What is the large structure in the middle? the linear structures surrounding it? the blue structure beneath?

A

middle = putamen

linear = caudate

blue = substantia nigra (tegmentum)

  • Contains cell bodies of DA neurons
  • Project to an area of the forebrain called the striatum
    • DA neurons that degenerate in PD
    • PD characterized by loss of DA neurons in substantia nigra which project to the striatum (important in motor control)

*all make up the basal ganglia

58
Q

What is the colored structure here?

A

cerebellum (metencephalon)

  • Heavily involved in coordinating movements
  • Cerebellum is getting motor signals from higher areas of the brain
  • Adjusting signals based upon sensory input to finetune a movement
59
Q

What is the teal structure here called?

A

hypothalamus (diencephalon)

  • Controls basic motivated behaviors
  • Controls appetite and feeding, thirst, sexual behavior, stress responses
  • Controls release of hormones in the body
  • Directly controls pituitary gland => different hormones into blood stream (i.e. sex hormones, stress hormones, those act on the adrenal glands and the sex glands)
  • Hormones released from fat cells (ghrelin, leptin)
  • Hormonal feedback loops between gut and hypothalamus, (controls basic behaviors i.e. tells you when to start and stop eating)
    • Obesity => dysregulation, hormonal feedback loops between body and hypothalamus
60
Q

What is the pink structure here?

A

THALAMUS (dinecephalon)

  • Sensory input to cortex
  • Sensory info coming into brain (i.e. visual, auditory, taste, touch) => pass through thalamus
  • Nuclei = specific kinds of sensory info i.e. LGN (lateral geniculate nucleus => visual info from optic nerve, medial geniculate nucleus = auditory nerve)
  • Recognition memory, remembering that you saw something before
61
Q

What do the colored structures represent?

A

frontal lobe (executive functions, primary motor cortex)

62
Q

What is the colored structure here?

A

parietal lobe (primary somatosensory cortex)

63
Q

What is the colored structure here? (towards the back)

A

occipital lobe (primary visual cortex)

64
Q

What do the colored structures here make up?

A

temporal lobe (primary auditory cortex)

65
Q

The limbic system is made up of subcortical structures of the ________.

A

forebrain

66
Q

What is the blue structure here? green structure? brown?

A

blue = amygdala

green = hippocampus

brown = hypothalamus

67
Q

Alcohol is broken down into _____ by _______.

A

Alcohol is broken down into acetaldehyde by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH).

68
Q

What is Label “A” pointing to?

A

caudate nucleus

69
Q

What is label “B” pointing to?

A

putamen

70
Q

What is label “C” pointing to?

A

substantia nigra

71
Q

What is label “D” pointing to?

A

subthalamic nucleus

72
Q

What is label “E” pointing to?

A

Globus Pallidus

73
Q

What is label “F” pointing to?

A

Nucleus Accumbens

74
Q

What is label “A” pointing to?

A

midbrain

75
Q

What is label “B” pointing to?

A

pons

76
Q

What is label “C” pointing to?

A

medulla

77
Q

What do all the colored structures together in this figure represent?

A

brain stem/hindbrain

78
Q

Label all the letters in this figure.

A

A: Epithalamus

B: Amygdala

C: Dentate Gyrus (obscured in this view)

D: Hippocampus

E: ERC

F: Hypothalamus

G: Cingulate Gyrus

79
Q

What do all the labels in this figure represent?

A

the limbic system

80
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the forebrain?

A

diencephalon and telencephalon

81
Q

What structures make up the dincephalon?

A

thalamus

hypothalamus

82
Q

What structures make up the telencephalon?

A

cerebral cortex

limbic system

basal ganglia

83
Q

What is the major division of the midbrain?

A

mesencephalon

84
Q

What are the major divisions of the hindbrain?

A

metencephalon

myelencephalon

85
Q

The PNS includes any nervous tissue that exists outside of the _____ and _______

A

The PNS includes any nervous tissue that exists outside of the brain and spinal cord

86
Q

What is the function of the PNS?

A

carry info to and from CNS (also bring in sensory info for information processing)

87
Q

The CNS includes any nervous tissue ______

A

The CNS includes any nervous tissue encased in bone

88
Q

Cranial nerves enter and exit through _____

A

brain stem (medulla and pons)

89
Q

Dorsal roots in the spinal cord take in _________

A

Dorsal roots in the spinal cord take in sensory information

90
Q

Ventral roots in the spinal cord take in _______ _________

A

motor information

91
Q

Sensory info enters toward _______, motor info enters toward ______

A

Sensory info enters toward back, motor info enters toward front

92
Q

what does the spinothalamic tract do?

A
  • send info from spine to brain (ascending) pain and temperature :
93
Q

what does the corticopinal tract do?

A
  • Brain to spine (Descending)
  • motor commands from brain are sent down to spinal cord
94
Q

Dorsal = ?

A

top

95
Q

Ventral = ?

A

under

96
Q

rostral = ?

A

front (rhymes with nostril)

97
Q

anterior = ?

A

front

98
Q

coronal = ?

A

brain from front or back (as if cut someone’s face off)

PSY 760 (2 decks)

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