Exam #1 Flashcards
- Which of the following is true regarding sensory memory?
It has a very limited capacity. It can hold information for up to 30 seconds. It is also referred to as primary memory. It is a representation of external stimuli.
The Correct Answer is “D”
A sensory memory is a representation of an external stimulus after the stimulus has ended. Sensory memories are believed to be unprocessed copies of the original stimuli which briefly reside in the sensory organs. Sensory memory is thought to have an unlimited capacity but a very short duration (no more than 2 or 3 seconds). “Primary memory” (C) and “secondary memory” are terms originally used by William James and these later became known as “short-term memory” and “long-term memory.”
- The best treatment for someone who has difficulty making friends, is shy, and can’t maintain steady employment is:
individual social skills training. paradoxical intention. token economy. group social skills training.
The Correct Answer is “D”
Treatment for very shy individuals who have trouble in interpersonal settings (as implied by the fact that the person cannot hold a job) typically involves social skills and assertiveness training. Although both of these treatments can be administered in individual therapy, the group format has a number of advantages: there are multiple models, and opportunities for feedback, support, and vicarious learning. These aren’t available in individual training sessions. Thus, D is the best answer.
- Of the following reinforcement schedules, which produces behavior that is most resistant to extinction?
fixed interval. variable interval. variable ratio. continuous.
The Correct Answer is “C”
In operant conditioning, reinforcement refers to a stimulus (e.g., reward) applied following a behavior that increases the frequency or strength of that behavior. Reinforcement can be administered either on a continuous or partial schedule. With continuous schedules, reinforcement is applied every time the behavior occurs (e.g., a dog gets a treat every time he does a trick). On a partial schedule, the reinforcement is administered some, but not all the time, following the behavior. For example, on a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses. Gambling is an example of a behavior reinforced on a variable ratio schedule; sometimes one bet can lead to a win, and sometimes it might take a hundred or more. A variable ratio schedule produces behavior more resistant to extinction (i.e., more difficult to eliminate by removing reinforcement) than a continuous schedule or other partial schedules. The other types of partial reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, where the behavior is reinforced after a fixed number of responses; fixed interval, where reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time following the behavior; and variable interval, where reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable amount of time.
- Which of the following seems the best illustration of encoding specificity?
difficulty learning new material unless already know some related subject information difficulty learning general arguments but easily learning specific points easily recalling information learned when in a similar situation to initial learning but difficulty remembering the information when in a different context. easily learning meaningful information but difficulty learning abstract information unless already know some related subject information
The Correct Answer is “C”
C. The encoding specificity principle of memory states that recall for information or memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). This information can include: environmental context (e.g., same place, time of day, people present); emotional state (i.e., if sad better recall of unhappy memories); physical state (i.e., if learned under the influence of a drug, will perform better if tested under the influence of the same drug); and sensory modality (if learned in verbal format may answer verbal questions better). Encoding specificity is also referred to as encoding-retrieval interaction, transfer-appropriate processing and state-dependent memory (SDM). (See: Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M., (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.)
- In terms of operant conditioning, “thinning” refers to:
the extinction a previously reinforced response. a reduction in positive reinforcement. the elimination of stimulus generalization. the gradual removal of prompts.
The Correct Answer is “B”
B. Thinning refers to a reduction in positive reinforcement (e.g., switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule). Thinning is sometimes confused with the procedure called “fading.” In fading, verbal and nonverbal prompts are used to help initiate a response however once the response is well-established, prompts are gradually removed with the ultimate goal being for the response to occur independently.
- According to M. Seligman’s theory of learned optimism, a student with an optimistic attribution style who fails an exam in a class which he usually does well in is most likely to say:
"I was unlucky" "I didn't study enough" "the teacher is always a tough grader" "the test was hard this time"
The Correct Answer is “D”
In Seligman’s theory of learned optimism, attributions of optimistic people are believed to be the opposite of attributions of depressed people. Since depressed people make internal, stable, and global attributions to negative events, optimistic people would tend to make external, unstable, and specific attributions in response to negative events. Therefore, we can readily eliminate “B” (“I didn’t study enough”) since that’s an internal attribution. Choice “C” (“the teacher is always a tough grader”) is a stable attribution. That leaves Choices “A” (“I was unlucky”) and Choice “D” (“the test was hard this time”) – which are both external and unstable attributions. Of the two, however, Choice “D” is better since being unlucky would imply that success is a matter of luck.
- Poor recall for information learned yesterday as the result of learning that took place last month is referred to as:
retroactive interference proactive interference retrograde amnesia anterograde amnesia
The Correct Answer is “B”
The prefixes (“pro” and “retro”) indicate which material is being interfered with. Proactive interference or inhibition occurs when previous learning interferes with new learning. Retroactive interference or inhibition occurs when new learning interferes with previous learning. Retrograde amnesia (C) is a failure to remember events that occurred prior to a trauma. And anterograde amnesia (D) is an impaired ability to learn new information.
- Research indicates elaborative learning is most effective for:
transferring sensory input from sensory memory to short-term memory. temporary storage of incoming sensory signals. transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. maintaining information in working memory.
The Correct Answer is “C”
C. Elaborative rehearsal is a method for improving long-term memory that makes new information more meaningful by associating it with previously acquired or learned information. Research indicates elaborative rehearsal is an effective way for ensuring that material is transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory.
- In terms of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of human memory, which of the following best accounts for the recency effect?
better storage in long-term memory due to rehearsal. the lack of decay of information from short-term memory at the time of testing. better retention in the sensory register due to stimulus characteristics. less forgetting due to a lack of proactive interference.
The Correct Answer is “B”
The Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi-store Model of human memory divides the structure of memory into three components: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory register stores unprocessed sensory information for less than a second. This information may or may not get selected for transfer to short-term memory, which retains information for about 15-30 seconds and has a capacity of 5-9 information chunks. If properly attended to, information from short-term store may be transferred to long-term memory, which holds information on a lasting basis. The recency effect refers to the tendency, when recalling items in a list, to better remember those toward the end of the list. There is also a tendency, called the primacy effect, to better remember items toward the beginning of the list. Together, the primacy and recency effects are referred to as the serial position effect. Research supports the notion that the recency effect occurs because, at the time of testing, the information at the end of the list is still present in short-term memory. For instance, if subjects engage in a distracting task after they study a list, the recency effect will be much weaker or disappear entirely.
- A student wants to memorize a speech to present at an assembly later in the week. Which of the following is likely to be least helpful to the student?
paraphrasing the content of the speech clarifying the key points in the speech reviewing the way the speech is organized and why reading the speech over and over aloud
The Correct Answer is “D”
D. Memory is a group of processes for acquiring, encoding, storing and retrieving information from our brain. The process of getting information into memory for storage is encoding. Semantic encoding involves meaningful organization. Research indicates the best memory retention and retrieval is for things we associate meaning to and store using semantic encoding. Short term memory (STM) is the term used to refer to the ability to access information in mind for a brief time. Information can be kept circulating in short term memory or working memory by rehearsing it, however once the repetition is stopped, the ability to recall the information may be lost quickly.
- The idea that a behavior can be learned at one point in time but not displayed until reinforcement is available is consistent with which of the following models of learning?Kohler’s “a-ha” model
Thorndike’s law of effect
Tolman’s Latent Learning
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
The Correct Answer is “C”
In the 1930s, Edward Tolman demonstrated the concept of latent learning in maze studies with rats. He showed that rats previously exposed to a maze, but with no reward for solving it, solved the maze much more quickly in later trials with reward, as compared to rats without previous exposure. The idea of latent learning, contrary to previous models, was that learning can occur without an explicit reward and such latent learning will manifest itself through behavior at a later time when a reward for it is available. Tolman proposed that the model applies to humans–for example, when we drive or walk the same route daily and learn the locations of various buildings and objects, but only display that knowledge when we need to find a particular object.
- Based on his animal learning and cognition research, Wolfgang Kohler concluded that learning is:insightful
the result of reinforcement and punishment
the result of trial-and-error
biologically-based
The Correct Answer is “A”
A. A co-founder of Gestalt psychology, which focuses on perception, Kohler’s research revealed that animals, like humans, appear to experience insight or an “aha” experience while solving problems.
- Exposure treatment is a technique that is widely used in cognitive-behavioral treatment for panic disorder and anxiety disorders. The technique that induces the bodily sensations that mimic those experienced during a panic attack is called:in vivo exposure
systematic desensitization
interoceptive exposure
flooding
The Correct Answer is “C”
C. Generally speaking, exposure treatment involves presenting an individual with anxiety-producing stimuli long enough to decrease the intensity of their emotional reaction so that the feared situation or thing no longer makes the individual anxious. Exposure procedures have two forms: exposure to environmental situations that each patient fears and exposure to the physical sensations associated with panic attacks. Interoceptive exposure involves the structured and repeated exposure to panic-like physical sensations such as hyperventilation, shaking head and body tension. Exposure treatment for feared objects and situations can be carried out in real situations, in vivo exposure (a.); or it can be done through imagination, imaginal exposure. The category of imaginal exposure includes systematic desensitization (b.), which asks an individual to imagine certain aspects of the feared object or situation in combination with relaxation. This is sometimes also called graded or graduated exposure, which refers to exposing an individual to the feared situation in a gradual manner. Flooding (d.) refers to exposing an individual to the anxiety-provoking or feared situation all at once and keeping him or her in it until the anxiety and fear subside.
- A child’s ability to maintain a mental picture of a toy even after it is removed is called:flashbulb memory
method of loci
eidetic imagery
sustained attention
The Correct Answer is “C”
C. Eidetic imagery, or photographic memory, is associated with improved ability to memorize information and tends to be more common in children. Another strategy for improving recall using visual images, is the method of loci (b.), which involves associating items to be remembered with mental images of places or specific items. This is useful for recalling information in a specific order. Flashbulb memory (a.) describes vivid, detailed memories of emotionally-charged or surprising events. Sustained attention (d.) is the ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on specific stimuli over an extended period.
- A person stops and asks a parking attendant for directions after getting lost while driving to an appointment. The attendant states, “Make a left at the first red light. Go four blocks until you reach a stop sign and turn right onto Main Street. About three blocks down Main, look for a large red sign at the entrance to the parking lot.” What type of memory is needed to hold such information?procedural memory
working memory
short term memory
long term memory
The Correct Answer is “B”
B. The type of memory needed to hold the directions in one’s mind while working on it is called working memory. In the 1980s, Baddeley and Hitch coined the term “working memory” for the ability to hold several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task. Baddeley defined the process of rapid verbal repetition of the to-be-remembered information to facilitate maintaining it in working memory, as an “articulatory loop.” He found there is a neural system or central executive in the frontal portion of the brain responsible for processing information in the “working memory.” Short-term memory (c.) holds information in mind for only a few seconds as it is processed. Long-term memory (d.) is where such processed information is permanently stored. Working memory is an intermediary and active memory system in the information processing area of the brain. (See: Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G.J. (1974). Working memory. In Bower, G.A. (Ed.) Recent advances in learning and morivation (Vol. 8). pp. 47-90. New York: Academic Press. See: Baddeley, A.D. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.)
