Exam 1 Flashcards
Culture
♣ Non-biological ♣ Learned (process of enculturation) ♣ Shared by members of a society ♣ Symbolic (art, money, religion) ♣ Provides continuity ♣ Meets basic needs ♣ Food/water ♣ Shelter ♣ Sex ♣ Has a capacity for change ♣ Provides for an orderly existence ♣ Standards and norms = Rules/Structure
Holism
♣ The study of all things relating to human behavior
ethnocentrism
♣ View that your own culture is superior to others
cultural relativism
♣ Societies should not be judged by standards other than their own
♣ No people are better or worse than others
♣ All societies are valid and important
physical Anthropology
Study of physical remains
• Study of dead humans
o 10,000 ya to present
• Biological Anthropology
o Study of living humans o Growth and development o Health and disease o Life history factors ♣ Age at maturation, gestation rate, longevity o Measurements of populations ♣ Body fat, weight, height
• Forensic Anthropology
o Study of the recently dead o Deal with authorities o Reconstruct identities o Analyze individual’s life record ♣ Bones and teeth
• Primatology
o Study of living and dead primates o Study of inter-primate interactions o Study of environmental adaptations o Study of anatomy and function o Comparison to fossil ancestors
• Paleoanthropology
o Hominid Evolution
• Genetics
o Mechanisms of evolution
o Speciation
o Modern human variability
• Paleopathology
o Study of ancient disease
• Bioarcheology
o Archaeologists that rely heavily on biological data
o Study bones/teeth to understand diet
o What types of plants/animals were they eating?
o How were they processing their food?
o Study disease and make links with the environment and social structure
o Agriculture’s effect on increasing incidence of malaria
Archaeology
Study of material culture
• Historic Archeology
o After written text
• Prehistoric Archaeology
o Prior to written text
• Classical Archaeology
o Literate Mediterranean Civilizations Greece and Rome
• Biblical Archaeology
o Link biblical events with archaeological data
• Experimental Archaeology
o Experimenting with ancient artifact manufacture
• Contract Archeology
o Cultural Resource Management
♣ Evaluate
♣ Make recommendations
♣ Full or partial excavation, survey
Linguistics
- Evolution of language
- Language description
- Language history
Cultural Anthropology
♣ Ethnologist
♣ Study culture or sub-culture
♣ Comparative perspective
♣ Seeking patterns in behavior – universals?
♣ Religion, food gathering techniques, family structure
♣ Ethnography
♣ Description of culture ♣ Based on first-hand experience ♣ Participant observation ♣ Informants ♣ Difficult to replicate
♣ Applied Anthropology
♣ Study the way humans relate to each other
♣ Apply the knowledge to practical problems
♣ Medical Anthropology
♣ Study of perceptions on health, illness, and healing
♣ Biomedical vs. other approaches to healing
♣ Corporate Anthropology
♣ Seek to understand corporate culture ♣ Reorganize company structure ♣ Study consumer habits ♣ Improve product design ♣ Improve marketing ♣ Understand consumer needs/desires
♣ Evolution
♣ No two individuals are alike
♣ A change in gene frequency over time
♣ Considered taxonomic system as a family tree
♣ Things were similar because they were related
♣ Variation exists all the time
♣ Does not arise within an individual’s lifetime
♣ Evolution is gradual and slow
♣ Non-directional and is unpredictable
♣ Product of variation and interaction with the environment
♣ natural selection
♣ Populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
♣ There is competition for resources
♣ The most suited to the environment survive
♣ Survival of the fittest
♣ Increased reproductive fitness
♣ Operates at the level of the individual but evolution occurs at the population level
♣ mutation
♣ Molecular alteration in genetic material
♣ Change of a single allele = point mutation
♣ Only way to produce new genetic variation
♣ genetic drift
♣ Exchange of genes between populations
♣ Example, US soldiers fathering children in Vietnam
♣ Example, ordering sperm from an international bank
♣ founder effect
♣ Type of genetic drift
♣ Small number of individuals contributing to next generation
♣ gene flow
♣ Exchange of genes between populations
♣ Example, US soldiers fathering children in Vietnam
♣ Example, ordering sperm from an international bank
♣ microevolution
♣ Produce changes within a species over the short term
♣ Natural selection plays a role in major evolutionary change
♣ Macroevolution
♣ Operate at the species level
♣ Takes much longer than microevolutionary processes
♣ allele (gene)
♣ Pairs of alleles are genes
♣ Genotype
♣ genetic make-up
♣ Dd
♣ Phenotype
♣ physical expression of genotype
♣ Darwin’s tubercle present
♣ Dominant
♣ If a dominant allele is present the dominant trait will always be active
♣ Dominant does NOT imply better
♣ Recessive
♣ Both alleles have to be recessive for the recessive trait to be active
♣ Co-Dominant
♣ Two dominant alleles will both express themselves
♣ change in gene frequency
♣ resulting from selective pressures being placed upon a population
♣ environmental factors
♣ results in greater fitness of the population
♣ acclimation
♣ At the individual level
♣ acclimation (cold-heat-oxygen)
♣ not inherited
♣ quickly reversed
♣ Change occurring within a lifetime
♣ Occur as a response to a single stressor
♣ Can also occur during developmental period
♣ Acclimatization
♣ Change occurring within a lifetime ♣ Reduces strain ♣ Caused by climate or complex environmental stresses ♣ Multiple stressors involved ♣ During growth period ♣ Developmental acclimatization
♣ Homeostasis
♣ Ability to maintain a stable internal environment
♣ passive immunity
♣ antibodies received through placenta & mothers milk
♣ active immunity
♣ exposure to disease or immunizations
♣ genetic trait
♣ promoting resistance
♣ doesn’t promote overall adaptability
♣ specific to a certain disease or group of diseases
♣ Disease effects on population
♣ strong impact on population – natural selection
♣ Removes genes from gene pool
♣ ex. Malnutrition, VD/HIV 65-75% infants not HIV+, German measles
♣ Malaria
♣ RBC’s last 120 days
♣ Protozoan reaches adulthood and reproduces
♣ At adulthood it bursts the cell putting waste into the blood stream
♣ Causes severe chills, headache, and fever for 4-10 hours with recurrence every 48-72 hours
♣ Homozygotes Hba/Hba= unaffected
♣ full on malaria
♣ Heterozygotes Hba/Hbs= unaffected & sickle
♣ less severe cases of malaria, not immune
♣ usually 30-40% of the population is heterozygote
♣ Homozygotes Hbs/Hbs= both sickle
♣ total immunity to malaria
♣ severe anemia
♣ cells have reduced affinity for oxygen
♣ usually fatal to children without treatment
♣ Sickle-cell anemia
♣ Sickle cell disease prevents oxygen from reaching the spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, heart, or other organs, causing a lot of damage. Without oxygen, the cells that make up these organs will begin to die. For example, the spleen is often destroyed in these patients resulting in some loss of immune function. As a result, these patients often experience frequent infections.
♣ The red blood cells of patients with sickle cell disease don’t live as long as healthy red blood cells. As a result, people with this disorder often have low red blood cell counts (anemia), which is why this disease is commonly referred to as sickle cell anemia.
♣ When sickle-shaped red blood cells get stuck in blood vessels this can cause episodes of pain called crises. Other symptoms include: delayed growth, strokes, and jaundice (yellowish hue to the skin and eyes because of liver damage).
♣ Because of these complications, people with this disorder are likely to have their life span reduced by about 30 years.
♣ HIV-AIDS
♣ HIV + - become ill ♣ HIV negative Babies born to HIV + mothers ♣ HIV + - slow progressing ♣ HIV + - not ill ♣ Carrier - may pass HIV on to others ♣ Genetic variation
♣ Skin color - Light
♣ Selection against light skin in areas of intense solar radiation
♣ Too much sun = increase in cancer, damaged folate
♣ In areas of lower solar radiation produces pre-vitamin D at a faster rate
♣ Skin color - Dark
♣ Populations closer to the equator and higher temperatures
♣ Populations closer to the equator and high altitudes
♣ More susceptible to rickets in areas of decreased solar radiation
Vitamin D
obtained through diet or photosynthesis
♣ Lack of calcium = Rickets
♣ decalcification of bones causing bowing
♣ can be cured by taking vitamins or exposure to sunlight
♣ reason for fortifying milk in the U.S.
♣ Allen’s Rule –
♣ In areas of extreme heat, the body surface will increase with an increase in the length of the limbs
♣ trunk remains short to decrease internal production of heat
Cold conservation of heat
♣ vasoconstriction of vessels (shrink)
♣ lower blood flow to the skin
♣ lower skin temperatures
♣ decrease in rate of heat lost through the skin
♣ skin heat closer to environmental temperature
♣ blood runs more deeply in the veins
♣ Instead of the more superficial veins minimizing heat loss
Cold Generate Heat
♣ Shivering – generate heat
♣ increase in heat production
♣ movement of skeletal muscles produces heat
♣ skin temperatures are reduced
♣ vasodilation occurs to keep the skin warmer (shifts between dilation and constriction)
♣ It is more economical (re: energy) to conserve than to generate heat
♣ Vasoconstriction –
♣ decrease in vasodilation
♣ vessels near skin expand
♣ less distribution of sweat over the skin
♣ Bergman’s Rule -
♣ Body size or trunk increase as temperatures decrease
`
Hypoxia
♣ decrease in oxygen
♣ at high altitudes the oxygen pressure is reduced
♣ less oxygen is in the air to be taken in
♣ therefore intake is also reduced
♣ Mt. Sickness (initial exposure) –
♣ First few days
♣ anorexia, nausea, vomiting, physical/mental fatigue, interrupted sleep, headaches
♣ maximum severity is between 24-48 hours
♣ Onset increased by physical activity & alcohol
♣ Cured by decrease in fats, decrease in alcohol, eat more carbohydrates and sugars, slow ascension, coca tea
Mt. sickness Developmental acclimation-
♣ Increased lung volume, proliferation of alveolar units, and increase in alveolar surface area
♣ Enlarged chest size, not related to genetics
♣ Monge’s Disease
♣ Only in Andean populations at altitudes over 9800 feet
♣ Mostly young and middle-aged males
♣ normally acclimatized to high altitudes
♣ Face turns purple, fingernails hemorrhage, the right ventricle of the heart is enlarged
♣ must be removed to a lower elevation
♣ usually associated with other traits, ex. Pulmonary TB or emphysema
♣ Protein Synthesis – Amino acids
♣ Polypeptide Chain= Amino Acids
♣ 20 amino acids, 8 obtained through foods. 90,000 proteins – ex. Hormones, collagen, enzymes. Triplet, group of three bases specifies a particular amino acid. Codons to anti-codons
♣ DNA Movie Notes
♣ Humans only have 2x as many genes as a fruit fly
♣ DNA tells us that we are more closely related to yeast than we would imagine
♣ Every baby born is 99.9% genetically similar to other babies
♣ Gene mapping used to be done by hand, but now it is done by computers
Aristotle (Great Chain of Being)
Hierarchy of organisms
Humans fixed at the top
Fixity of Species
Short history for the earth
Copernicus
Heliocentrism Earth revolves around the sun Opposed to Geocentrism Sun revolving around the earth Galileo (early 1600’s) – same idea Excommunicated from the church Last nine years of his life under house arrest
Archbishop James Ussher
Biblical genealogy used to estimate date of creation
Earth created in 4004 B.C.
Later amended by Reverend Lightfoot
October 23 at 9AM
Comte de Buffon
Earth created when comet collided with sun
Everyday processes continue to mold earth
Volcano’s, erosion, and shifting of the tectonic plates
Groups moving to new areas were influenced by the environment
Changed accordingly
Rejected the idea one species could give rise to another
Georges Cuvier (Catastrophism)
Multiple geologic events could have formed the different layers of strata in a short amount of time, catastrophic events accounted for unknown (extinct) life forms
His followers said that extinctions were part of God’s plan, new species were created after destructive events
Final flood to affect humankind was Noah’s flood in the Bible
Thomas Malthus
An Essay on the Principle of Population
Populations can increase at a faster rate than food sources
Inadequate food resources would result in the struggle for existence
There would be a constant competition for food
John Ray
Method of Classification
Genus
Species that looked similar were grouped together
Species
Able to interbreed & produce fertile offspring
Carrolus Linnaeus
Naturalist Considered the father of Taxonomy Study of the rules of classification for organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships Systema Naturae (1735) Added Class and Order Binomial Nomenclature – two names Genus and species name used to identify species Focused on structure and function Included humans Proposed idea of change
John Baptiste Lamarck
Mechanism of biological change slow regular process
Organisms ranked from simple to complex
Humans at the top, striving toward perfection
The environment was responsible for the appearance of new life in simple forms
Organisms could control change
Charles Lyell
Observed processes in action
Water and wind erosion, flooding, frost, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc
Studied natural processes like the layers of the earth (strata)
Found many strata and some were very thick
The formation occurred slowly and gradually
Came up with the idea of deep time
“the present is the key to the past”
Charles Darwin
HMS Beagle (1831-1836) Circumnavigated the world Acted as ship’s naturalist and captain’s companion Saw variation in isolated areas Finches of the Galapagos Islands Adapted to different ecological niches
