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Psych 171 > Exam #1 > Flashcards

Exam #1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Why are theories important? (3)

A
  1. Organize what we know into coherent set of principles
  2. Form testable hypotheses about children’s behavior
  3. Interpret findings
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2
Q

Continuous development

A

Change is gradual and smooth, each experience builds on earlier experiences

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3
Q

Discontinuous development

A

Change occurs in discrete steps with qualitative differences at each step

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4
Q

Overlapping waves for development

A

Variability in social behavior at a given point in time, change happens as children adopt new strategies

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5
Q

Current view of development (continuous or discontinuous)

A

Continuous but interspersed with transitional periods

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6
Q

Case study: Genie

A

Nature vs nurture, locked in basement, after certain amount of years passed she couldn’t learn how to talk

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7
Q

Current view of nature vs nuture

A

Both are important and interact, expression of biological characteristics is shaped by environmental circumstances

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8
Q

Current view of whether social development is universal across cultures

A

Some universal aspects but need to understand cultural variation

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9
Q

Rogoff’s research

A

Culture, Mayan vs US children, Mayan children better at attention and learning

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10
Q

Equifinality

A

Pathway, convergence, two children follow different paths to reach same outcome

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11
Q

Multifinality

A

Pathway, divergence, two children start out similarly but end up at different points

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12
Q

Early view on what role children play in their own development

A

Passive role, children shaped by external forces

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13
Q

Current view on what role children play in their own development

A

Active role, children explore and seek out info about world, participate in exchanges with others, shape own development

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14
Q

What makes for a “good” theory? (3)

A
  1. Parsimonious- simple
  2. Falsifiable- testable
  3. Applicable-practical relevance
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15
Q

Psychodynamic Perspectives: Freud

A

Development driven by unconscious instincts: sex, aggression, hunger

Shaped by relationships with others (mostly parents)

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16
Q

Freud’s psychosexual stages of development

A

Oral —> anal —> phallic (learns differences between males and females) —> latency (little or no sexual motivation) —> genital

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17
Q

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

A

Extended stages through adulthood, emphasized social environment over biology, specified tasks that must be accomplished at each stage, risks of failing to accomplish

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18
Q

Erikson’s stages

A
  1. Trust vs mistrust (0-1 years)
  2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 years)- assert independence
  3. Initiative vs guilt (3-6 years)-responsibility and ambition
  4. Industry vs inferiority (6-12 years)-master tasks
  5. Identity vs confusion (12-20 years)
  6. Intimacy vs isolation (20-30 years)
  7. Generatively vs stagnation (30-65 years)-raise children, generative career, give back to community
  8. Integrity vs Despair (65+ years)
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19
Q

Strengths of Freud and Erikson

A

Emphasis on effects of early experience and social interactions on development, introduced concepts (attachment, gender roles, morality, identity)

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20
Q

Weaknesses of Freud and Erikson

A

Difficult to test empirically

Just Freud: not based directly on work with children

Just Erikson: mechanisms for transitioning across stages not identified

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21
Q

Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

A

Transactional focus: children as agents in exploring and making sense of their environment

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22
Q

2 important processes for Piaget’s theory

A
  1. Assimilation- fit new info into existing schema

2. Accommodation- modify existing schema in response to new info

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23
Q

Piaget’s theory stages (4)

A
  1. Sensorimotor
  2. Preoperational
  3. Concrete operational
  4. Formal operational
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24
Q

Piaget’s sensorimotor period

A

0-2 years, differentiates self from objects and other people, imitate and engage in imaginative play, basic understanding of causality, develops object permanence

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25
Q

Piaget’s preoperational period

A

2-7 years, begins to use language and symbols, perspective is egocentric (can’t see perspective of others), irreversible, centered

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26
Q

Piaget’s concrete operations period

A

7-12 years, reasons logically about present objects, organizes objects into classes and series, grasps concept of conservation (ex: liquid in glass), can take another’s perspective

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27
Q

Piaget’s formal operations period

A

12+ years, thinking is flexible and complex, can consider abstract ideas and hypotheses

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28
Q

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

A

Development is best understood as a product of social interactions, especially with more skilled people

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29
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

Things the learner can do with help

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30
Q

Strengths of Piaget and Vygotsky

A

Based on direct work with children, links between cognition and social relations

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31
Q

Weaknesses of Piaget and Vygotsky

A

Piaget: series of universal, invariant, stages is contextually and culturally limited

Vygotsky: measurement of ZPD is difficult

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32
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Pavlov and Watson, new stimulus is paired with familiar stimulus until individual responds to new in the same way as familiar

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33
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Skinner, reinforcement learning: rewards increase the likelihood that behavior will recur, punishment decreases likelihood

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34
Q

Strengths/weaknesses of traditional learning theories (conditioning)

A

Strength: useful for explaining certain aspects of development

Weaknesses: overemphasis on behavior with neglect of individual differences

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35
Q

Bandura’s cognitive social learning theory

A

Importance of observational learning, demonstrated that children who watched another person behaving aggressively were likely to imitate that person

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36
Q

Bandura’s observations

A

Children do not imitate automatically, cognition is part of process, children must pay attention and be able to remember and reproduce it

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37
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

Bandura, children reciprocally influence the model

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38
Q

Bandura’s strengths

A

Considerable empirical evidence, many practical applications

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39
Q

Bandura’s weaknesses

A

Not very developmental in scope, minimal attention to individual differences

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40
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

A

Child’s world is organized as a set of nested systems or contexts, development is affected by interactions between and within systems, processes are culture-specific

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41
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s Systems

A

Microsystem —> mesosystem —> exosystem—> macrosystem

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42
Q

Microsystem

A

Context in which children live and interact with the people and institutions closest to them

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43
Q

Mesosystem

A

Interrelations among components of microsystem

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44
Q

Exosystem

A

Settings that influence development but in which the child does not play a direct role

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45
Q

Macrosystem

A

Values, ideologies, and laws of society and culture

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46
Q

Chronosystem

A

Overarching changes within the child or in one of the systems

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47
Q

Bronfenbrenner’s strengths/weaknesses

A

Strengths: attention to broad range of influential social contexts

Weaknesses: describes, but does not explain, development, too broad to test

48
Q

Ethological theory

A

To understand behavior, must view in a particular setting, times when we are most sensitive to particular types of stimuli, must study in relation to organism’s biology

49
Q

Evolutionary development theory

A

Ancestors developed complex skills to ensure survival

50
Q

Method: correlation, involves determining (2 things)

A
  1. Direction 2. Magnitude of systematic relations between variables
51
Q

Strengths of correlation

A

Useful for describing patterns in development as they naturally occur, starting place for unexplored areas of research

52
Q

Strengths/weaknesses for lab experiment

A

Strength: able to make claims about cause and effect relations (because of independent value manipulation and random assignment)

Weakness: can lack ecological validity

53
Q

Strengths/ weaknesses of field experiment

A

Strength: able to make claims about cause and effect relations, can be more ecologically valid

Weakness: some things cannot ethically be manipulated

54
Q

Method: intervention

A

Takes knowledge from correlational, lab, and field research and attempts to make a positive impact on an aspect of development

55
Q

Method: natural experiment

A

Aka quasi-experiment, researchers monitor the impact of changes that occur without their intervention

56
Q

Strengths/weaknesses of reports

A

Strengths: wide-scale implantation at low cost, ask private questions in surveys, tailor interviews to individual

Weaknesses: social desirability

57
Q

Gathering data: structures observation

A

Create a situation in which the behavior of interest is likely to occur, ex: “still face” design (baby cries when mother didn’t respond)

58
Q

Gathering data: coding observations

A

Event sampling: only when a specific event occurs

Time sampling: any of a set of behaviors that occurs within a specific time frame

59
Q

Observations strengths/weaknesses

A

Strengths: generalizability and external validity are high

Weaknesses: influence of being observed, observer bias (can use blind coders), less control for isolating causes

60
Q

Gathering data: psychophysiological techniques

A

Examine physical and psychological processes that occur when children encounter social stimuli (heart rate, respiration, EEG, fMRI, hormone levels)

61
Q

Cross sectional design

A

Multiple groups compared at same time

62
Q

Longitudinal design

A

Studies same group of children over period of time

63
Q

Sequential design

A

Combination of cross sectional and longitudinal designs, following several differently aged cohorts over time

64
Q

Infant directed speech

A

Auditory preparation, “baby talk”

65
Q

Contingent interactions

A

Infants learn that they can be an initiator and a responder

66
Q

Visual cortex development

A

3 months: preference for faces

67
Q

Auditory cortex development

A

18-24 months: language development

68
Q

Prefrontal cortex development

A

5-7 years: executive processes

69
Q

Synaptic pruning

A

Eliminates under-stimulated connections

70
Q

Experiment-expectant processes

A

Rely on the experiences that are expected in children’s normal environments (ex: learning native language)

71
Q

Experiment-dependent processes

A

Rely on experiences that are unique to individuals (ex: learning how to juggle)

72
Q

Passive gene-environment associations

A

Parents provide genes and environments for children, environments match and encourage genetic predispositions

73
Q

Evocative gene-environment association

A

Child’s genetic tendencies elicit reactions from their environments

74
Q

Active gene-environment association

A

Children seek out experiences compatible with their inherited tendencies

75
Q

Gene environment interactions

A

Occur when the environment has an impact on the degree to which genetic influences are expressed

76
Q

Gene environment interactions

A

Mothers with DRD2 gene became harsh parents during hard times

77
Q

Temperament

A

Individual differences in reactivity (affect, emotion) and self-regulation (attention, self-soothing)

78
Q

Thomas and Chess temperament categories (3)

A
  1. Easy (40%)- flexible, friendly, happy, adaptable
  2. Difficult (10%)- feisty, irregular, moody
  3. Slow to warm up (15%)- fearful, low in activity level, high in withdraw but adapt with exposure
79
Q

Rothbart temperament dimensions (3)

A
  1. Effortful control- ex: marshmallow test
  2. Negative affectivity-frustration, fear, discomfort, sadness, soothability
  3. Surgency- low shyness, impulsivity
80
Q

Measuring temperament

A

Parental report, researcher observations, physiological measures, molecular genetics

81
Q

Ages when different aspects of temperament can be observed

A
  • Newborns: distress, avoidance
  • 1-2 months: smile, approach
  • 2-3 months: anger, frustration
  • 7-10 months: fear
  • 2+ years: effortful control
82
Q

Big Five Personality Factors

A

Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness

83
Q

Goodness of fit

A

Match between child’s temperament and environment

84
Q

Attachment

A

Strong emotional bond that forms between infant and caregiver within first year

85
Q

Psychoanalytic theory of attachment

A

Oral stage, mothers satisfy need for sucking (Freud)

86
Q

Psychosocial theory of attachment

A

Task of developing trust (Erikson)

87
Q

Learning theory of attachment

A

Attachment because of feeding (ex: Harlow’s money experiment)

88
Q

Cognitive development theory of attachment

A

Requirement of object permanence (Piaget)

89
Q

Ethological theory of attachment

A

Bowlby proposed that attachment is result of biologically programmed responses from infant and mother, adapted idea of imprinting, emphasized secure base

90
Q

Strange Situation

A

Used to gauge exploration, reactions, stranger anxiety

91
Q

Ainsworth’s attachment classification from strange situation

A
  1. Secure (~65%)
  2. Insecure-avoidant (~20%)
  3. Insecure-ambivalent (~10%)
  4. Insecure-disorganized (~5%)
92
Q

Insecure-avoidant

A

Little concern for parent’s absence, active avoidance at reunion, ignoring parent

93
Q

Insecure-ambivalent

A

Unable to use parent as secure base, distressed by parent’s absence, but show anger/resentment upon reunion, seek contact then reject

94
Q

Insecure-disorganized

A

Greatest insecurity, contradictory patterns of behavior

95
Q

Assessing attachment

A

Attachment Q-sets, mother sorts 90 statements into sets ranging from “describes very well” to “least descriptive”, score reflects how securely attached a child is

96
Q

Attachment in different cultures

A

Infants in different cultures have different amounts of experiment being left alone by mother

More insecure-ambivalent in Kenya, PR, Japan, and Uganda

More insecure-avoidant in Germany, Sweden, and UK

97
Q

Hazan and Shaver (1987)-stability in attachment

A

How adults approach intimate relationships

  • Secure (50%)
  • Avoidant (30%)
  • Ambivalent (20%)
98
Q

Emotions

A

Subjective reaction to something in the environment, accompanied by some form of physiological arousal, communicated to others through expression or action

99
Q

3 components of emotion

A

Emotional expression, understanding, regulation

100
Q

Biological perspective of emotion

A

Emotional expressions are innate, universal

101
Q

Learning perspective of emotion

A

Differences in emotional expression based on environment

102
Q

Functional perspective of emotion

A

Emotions are relational, guides others’ behavior, memories of past emotions shape responding

103
Q

Primary emotions

A

Sadness, surprise, joy, interest, anger, fear, disgust, distress

104
Q

Duchenne smile

A

Real smile, seen in eyes, hard to fake

105
Q

What makes infants vs toddlers laugh

A

7-9 months: tactile stimuli

12-24 months: visual and social stimuli

106
Q

Secondary Emotions

A

Embarrassment, jealousy, guilt, shame, pride, empathy

107
Q

Guilt vs shame

A

Guilt- other focused

Shame- self focused

108
Q

Age of recognizing emotions in others

A
  • 3-6 months: recognize positive emotions

- 3-4 years: recognize happiness, sadness, anger, fear

109
Q

Emotional scripts

A

Enables children to identity others’ likely emotional reactions to events (pre-expectation for predicting others’ emotions)

110
Q

Emotional display

A

Culturally acceptable (“boys don’t cry”)

111
Q

Emotion regulation

A

Involves monitoring and modifying emotional displays

112
Q

Infants’ and toddlers’ tactics for emotion regulation

A

Turn away, rely on caregiver

113
Q

Preschoolers’ tactics for emotion regulation

A

Distraction, attention shift, approach/retreat, using emotional display rules, Cookie Monster video

114
Q

Older childrens’ tactics for emotion regulation

A

Mask emotions, ex: disappointing gift

115
Q

Denham: 3 ways to teach emotional skills

A
  1. Modeling
  2. Reactions
  3. Coaching
116
Q

Gottman: steps to emotion coaching

A
  1. Be aware of the child’s emotions
  2. Recognize emotional expression as
    an opportunity for intimacy and
    teaching
  3. Listen empathetically and validate
    the child’s feelings
  4. Label emotions in words that
    children can understand
  5. Help children come up with an
    appropriate way to solve a problem
    or deal with an upsetting situation

Psych 171 (3 decks)

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